197th AFPMB Board Meeting:
Venomous Animals - C
Calliophis bibroni
Calliophis bivirgatus
Calliophis gracilis
Calliophis intestinalis
Calliophis macclellandi
Calliophis maculiceps
Calliophis spp.
Calloselasma rhodostoma
Causus bilineatus
Causus defilippii
Causus lichtensteinii
Causus maculatus
Causus resimus
Causus rhombeatus
Centruroides elegans
Centruroides exilicauda
Centruroides infamatus
Centruroides limpidus
Centruroides noxius
Centruroides spp.
Centruroides suffusus
Cerastes cerastes
Cerastes gasperettii
Cerastes vipera
Cerrophidion barbouri
Cerrophidion godmani
Cerrophidion petlalcalensis
Cerrophidion tzotzilorum
Chironex fleckeri
Chiropsalmus quadrigatus
Chrysaora lactea
Conus clerii
Conus geographus
Conus textile
Crotalus adamanteus
Crotalus aquilus
Crotalus atrox
Crotalus basiliscus
Crotalus catalinensis
Crotalus cerastes
Crotalus durissus
Crotalus durissus terrificus
Crotalus enyo
Crotalus horridus
Crotalus intermedius
Crotalus lannomi
Crotalus lepidus
Crotalus mitchellii
Crotalus molossus
Crotalus oreganus
Crotalus polystictus
Crotalus pricei
Crotalus pusillus
Crotalus ravus
Crotalus ruber
Crotalus scutulatus
Crotalus simus
Crotalus spp.
Crotalus stejnegeri
Crotalus tigris
Crotalus tortugensis
Crotalus totonacus
Crotalus transversus
Crotalus triseriatus
Crotalus viridis
Crotalus willardi
Calliophis bibroni
Identification
Family: Elapidae
Scientific Names: Callophis bibroni, C. cerasinus, Elaps bibroni, E. cerasinus
Common Names: Bibron's coral snake, Asiatic coral snake
Description
Medium-sized cylindrical bodied Elapid, slender, terrestrial, brightly colored w/ bands or stripes, one pair of upper front fixed fangs, adults usually about 100 cm long or less. May have 13-15 parallel rows of smooth dorsal scales at midbody.
Habitat
Found mainly in forests, usually in the loose humus, litter, or sandy soil (or under logs or debris); in southwestern India.
Activity and Behavior
Mainly nocturnal & terrestrial, hide in loose debris or burrow into sandy soil or under logs during day; prey mainly on other snakes or lizards at night. Probably oviparous (some related spp. reportedly lay 1-14 eggs/ clutch).
Venom Characteristics
Not much known, probably neurotoxic. Potentially lethal to humans; but so far, no well-documented bites, serious envenomations, nor fatalities of humans related to bites by this species. For a bit more generalized information, see the closely-related species, "C. macclellandi".
Calliophis bivirgatus
Identification
Family: Elapidae
Scientific Names: Adeniophis flaviceps, Bioliophis bivirgatus, Callophis bivirgatus, Calliophis bivirgatus bivirgatus, C. b. flaviceps, C. b. tetrataenia, Doliophis bivirgatus, D. flaviceps, Elaps bivirgatus, E. tetrataenia, Maticora bivirgata, M. b. bivirgata, M. b. flaviceps, M. b. tetrataenia,
Common Names: Blue Malaysian coral snake, Blue long-glanded coral snake, Blaue Bauchdrusenotter
Description
Fairly large but slender, smooth scales, adults up to 140 cm long; body indigo w/ lateral blue or grayish-blue stripe along each side; head, tail & venter are all red (sometimes bright), blunt snout w/ dark eyes set on sides of the head.
Click for Image [1]
![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/CalliophisBivirgatusFlaviceps62BluCoral2006ByJBulian.7o7.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Found mainly in forested sites in Malaysia, Thailand & western Indonesia, in humid conditions along forest edges or clearings; Not found in open or dry conditions. Usually found from sea level to about 500 m elevation.
Activity and Behavior
Terrestrial (semi-burrowing), mainly nocturnal; hide under leaf litter, logs or debris in daytime; when threatened, they tend to hide their head under coils & raise their tail (sometimes also jerk it, vibrate it, or pretend to "strike" w/ it). Oviparous, 1-3 eggs/clutch, preys mainly on other snakes, lizards or frogs, & sometimes small mammals.
Venom Characteristics
Not well known, mainly potently neurotoxic; few bites of humans are reported. Bite usually not very painful & no swelling at site. At least 2 documented human fatalities, an adult male human in Singapore reportedly died within 5 min. of envenomation.
Calliophis gracilis
Identification
Family: Elapidae
Scientific Names: Callophis gracilis, Elaps nigromaculatus
Common Names: Gray coral snake, spotted coral snake, Gefleckte korallonotter
Description
Relatively small, slender, smooth scaled coral snake, adults usually less than 100 cm long, a pair of upper front fixed fangs; body grey w/ black vertebral stripe & black spots along each flank, belly has alternating black & white bars. This is the "type species" of the genus Calliophis.
Habitat
Limited to localized populations in southern Thailand, peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, & Sumatra. For generalized local example habitat characteristics, see the closely-related species "C. macclellandi".
Activity and Behavior
Not well studied, but reportedly terrestrial (at least semi-burrowing) & mainly nocturnal (hiding under leaf litter or debris during day). Probably oviparous & probably mainly prey on available other snakes & lizards. See Calliophis macclellandi.
Venom Characteristics
Not much known. Probably neurotoxic, but not documented to have ever been lethal to a human. For details about a closely-related species, See Calliophis macclellandi.
Calliophis intestinalis
Identification
Family: Elapidae
Scientific Names: Adenophis nigrotaeniatus, Aspis intestinalis, Calamaria klossi, Callophis intestinalis, C. i. malayana, C. i. nigrotaeniatus, Doliophis intestinalis, D. i. var. vertebralis, D. i. forma typica, Elaps furcatus, E. intestinalis (in part), E. melanotaenia, E. sumatranus, E. thepassi, E. trilineatus, Maticora intestinalis, M. i. bilineata, M. i. everetti, M. i. intestinalis, M. i. lineata, M. i. philippina. M. i. suluensis, M. i. thepassi, Vipera furcata
Common Names: Banded Malaysian coral snake, Brown long-glanded coral snake, Striped coral snake, Gestreifte Bauchdrusenotter
Description
Small, slender, cylindrical, smooth-scaled, one pair of front fixed fangs, adults usually no more than 50 cm long; body dark brown, w/ a narrow faded reddish vertebral stripe, belly pale reddish to pink. Similar to C. bivirgatus, but much smaller & brownish.
Habitat
Found mainly in loose debris & litter on open forest floor, near edges of clearings, from sea level up to about 500 m elevation. Reported from Malaysia, Indonesia (Java, Sumatra, Borneo, Brunei Darussalam), Sabah, and the Philippines (Luzon, Palawan, Minainao, Samar, Sulu). See Calliophis bivirgatus.
Activity and Behavior
Mainly terrestrial, nocturnal, oviparous, & probably preys mainly on other snakes, lizards or frogs. Occurs mainly in Malaysia & Indonesia, but also reported from the Philippine Islands.
Venom Characteristics
Not much known, but probably neurotoxic. Not reported to have caused any human fatalities.
Calliophis macclellandi
Identification
Family: Elapidae
Scientific Names: Calliophis macclellandi iwasakii, C. m. macclellandi, C. m. swinhoei, C. m. univirgatus, Callophis annularis, C. formosensis, C. macclellandi, Elaps macclellandi, E. personatus, Hemibungarus macclellandi, Micrurus macclellandi, M. m. swinhoei, Sinomicrurus macclellandi
Common Names: Macclelland's coral snake, Macclellands korallenotter,
Description
Small, slender, cylindrical, adults 63-78 cm long (max. 80 cm), body usually dark reddish/ brownish (russet-pink) above, w/ 23-40 thin, widely-spaced, black, light-edged bands (some incomplete on flanks). Head black w/ very broad ivory-colored band behind eyes, bordered behind by broad black band; chin cream, belly yellowish w/ black marks. Tail w/ 2-6 thin black bands. Body scales smooth, in 13 parallel longitudinal midbody dorsal rows.
![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/CallioMcClellandi63UsNavyByReKuntz.jpg){kind=link}
![[2]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/CallioMcClellandiHdlatLl63UsNavyByReKuntz.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Found mainly in forest litter, near streams of lowlands (up to 1,000 m) throughout most of Southeast Asia. Tend to avoid very dry & very open places.
Activity and Behavior
Mainly nocturnal & terrestrial (semi-burrowing). Mainly eats other snakes & lizards. Oviparous, w/ usually 6-14 eggs/ clutch.
Venom Characteristics
Not well studied, but probably mainly neurotoxic (like most Elapids). Very few reported cases of human envenomation (at least once reported to have caused fatality of a child) & those are not well documented.
Calliophis maculiceps
Identification
Family: Elapidae
Scientific Names: Calliophis maculiceps atrofrontalis, C. m. hughi, C. m. maculiceps, C. m. michaelis, C. m. smithi, C. m. var. univirgatus, Callophis hughi, C. maculiceps, Elaps atrofronatlis, E. maculiceps, E. melanusus, Maticora maculiceps, M. m. hughi, M. m. maculiceps, M. m. michaelis
Common Names: Speckled coral snake, Small-spotted coral snake, Gesprenkelte Korallenotter
Description
Small, slender, cylindrical, adults usually 45-50 cm long (max. female 130 cm), body above brown to reddish w/ black spots arranged longitudinally along each side, head not distinct from neck, black dorsally, w/ some yellow marks & spots, belly red to pink, tail pale blue or grey below, w/ two black rings. Some individuals w/ thin black vertebral stripe, some w/ no patterning. Body scales smooth, in 13 parallel longitudinal midbody dorsal rows.
Click for Image [1]
![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/CalliophisMaculiceps69SpekledCoral2006ByJBulian.7o7.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Found mainly in forest floor litter, under logs & in similar places (usually fairly near water), up to 1,000 m elevation. Found throughout most of Southeast Asia.
Activity and Behavior
Mainly nocturnal & terrestrial (burrowing), secretive. Prey mainly on other available small snakes (especially worm-snakes, like Typhlops spp.) & lizards. Oviparous, one captured specimen reported to have laid a clutch of only 2 eggs. Not aggressive. Usually forage in & under leaf litter; also in or around ant hills (where its main prey snakes tend to be found).
Venom Characteristics
Not well known, but probably neurotoxic (like most other Elapids). Not reported to have seriously envenomated nor killed humans.
Calliophis spp.
Identification
Family: Elapidae
Scientific Names: Currently at least 14 separate named spp. in this genus. See separate entries for more details about eaach of the 6 most common & widespread spp.
Common Names: Asiatic coral snakes, long-glanded coral snakes, Oriental coral snakes
Description
Small to medium-sized slender, brightly-colored, adults usually 0.3-0.5 m long (max. about 1.0 m); have a pair of upper fixed front fangs, body diameter about size of a finger. Colors usually bright, variable. Representative patterns exemplified by Calliophis macclellandii & C. sauteri: body color usually russet to pink dorsally, usually w/ narrow, contrasting bands, stripes or rows of spots.
Habitat
Found mainly in scrub jungles & monsoon forests. Often found near human habitations. Generally avoid dry & very open terrain. Various species found throughout Asia & SE Asia (see each species listed for its own range).
Activity and Behavior
Most species are mainly nocturnal & semi-burrowing, remaining hidden during the day within humus & leaf litter on forest floor, or under logs, stones or other debris. All (so far reported) are oviparous, & prey mainly on other snakes or various lizards (maybe rarely also on small mammals).
Venom Characteristics
Likely neurotoxic. Little known of venom. Few bites reported, possibly partly because there is usually no significant pain, swelling or other local symptoms at the site & time of a bite (even in cases where a person was fatally envenomated). One case of fatal envenoming by Calliophis macclellandii univirgatus reported from Nepal, & a few more by certain other spp. in this genus. No specific antivenom currently produced.
Calloselasma rhodostoma
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: Agkistrodon rhodostoma, A. annamensis, Ancistrodon annamensis, A. rhodostoma, Calloselasma annamensis, C. rhodostoma annamensis, C. r. rhodostoma, Leiolepis rhodostoma, Trigonocephalus rhodostoma
Common Names: Malayan pit viper, Malaiische Mokassin-Grubenotter
Description
Large, heavy-bodied, smooth-scaled terrestrial pitviper, adults usually 60-80 cm long (max. 100 cm). Body gray, pale brown, or pale reddish brown, w/ 19-31 alternating dorsal dark, triangular markings w/ apices toward vertebral line & series of dark spots on flanks. Belly pinkish-white mottled w/ brown, head light brown, w/ dark postorbital stripe bordered above by a light stripe, snout pointed & up-turned.
Click for Image [1]
![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/CalloselasmaRhodostoma57MalaianPitVipr2006ByJBulian.7o7.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Found mainly in rather dry coastal forests; bamboo thickets; overgrown, unused farmland; forest next to plantations. Usually inhabit lowlands, but also found in mountains to about 2,000 m elevation. Known from most of Southeast Asia (most common in Thailand & Vietnam).
Activity and Behavior
Mainly nocturnal but sometimes active by day. Oviparous w/ 10-35 eggs/ clutch. Bad-tempered, quick to strike if disturbed, guards eggs to some degree, preys mainly on small mammals & birds, also eats available lizards & amphibians.
Venom Characteristics
Potent hemotoxin. Local swelling may begin within minutes after bite, followed by blistering & local necrosis. Hemoptysis, apathy, thirst, rapid thready pulse, & decreased blood pressure may occur. Bites fairly common. Case fatality rate low, but many human deaths caused by envenomation by this species have been reported.
Causus bilineatus
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names:
Common Names: Two-striped night adder, two-lined night adder
Description
Small, medium-stout viper, w/ fairly long head, adults usually 30-50 cm long (max. about 65 cm); scales soft, velvety, slightly keeled, typically 17 dorsal midbody scale rows. Body usually brown to grey-brown, w/ a row of irregular rectangular black patches, between two distinct, narrow, pale stripes that run the length of the body. Head w/ a dark "v-shaped" mark, w/ point forward, on top; belly dark to dark cream.
Habitat
Found mainly in moist savannah, swampy areas & forest-savannah mosaic, from southern Zaire to norhern Zambia, west to eastern Angola, w/ isolated records from Rwanda.
Activity and Behavior
Not well known, but probably mainly terrestrial, usually slow moving; mainly nocturnal, oviparous (clutch size not reported but related spp. lay 3-20 eggs/ clutch), active by day & night; inflates its body when angry, hisses & puffs, strikes in a swipe. Mainly preys on frogs & toads. May be locally abundant.
Venom Characteristics
Not well characterized, but probably mainly hemotoxic. Venom not regarded as particularly toxic, typically cuases local swelling & pain, but no recently documented human fatalities despite significant numbers of persons bitten, & fairly frequent such bites.
Causus defilippii
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: Heterodon de filippi
Common Names: Snouted night adder, De Filippi's night adder
Description
Small, fairly stout-bodied, terrestrial viper, adults usually 30-40 cm long (max. 50 cm). Body brownish, greenish, or grayish with 20-30 dark brown, pale-edged rhombic blotches along back & tail. Dorsal scales weakly keeled, in 13-17 (usually 17) midbody rows. Head w/ prominent dark, forward-pointing V-shaped mark on top, short dark bar behind each eye, & upturned snout. Belly cream, pearly-white or pinkish gray (may be glossy black or grey in juveniles).
Habitat
Found mainly in lowveld & arid (& sometimes moist) savanna areas of central & southern Africa.
Activity and Behavior
Mainly nocturnal but active in day & at dusk, mainly terrestrial but sometimes climbs into low bushes, oviparous w/ usually 3-9 eggs/ clutch, feeds mainly on frogs & toads. Often hisses or "puffs" when threatened, may be heard before it is seen. Males engage in ritual combat in mating season.
Venom Characteristics
Venom weakly cytotoxic. Bites generally produce local swelling, lymphadenopathy, & mild fever without development of local necrosis; rarely may cause intense local pain at bite site; not considered a serious medical threat to humans. No antivenom currently produced.
Causus lichtensteinii
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: Aspidelaps lichtensteinii, Dinodipsas angulifera, Heterodon lichtensteinii
Common Names: Forest night adder, Lichtenstein's night adder
Description
Small, medium-built night adder, adults usually 30-55 cm long (max. 70 cm). Body usually olive-green, sometimes w/ indistinct dark blotches, bars or chevron markings along its back, distinct white, forward-pointed V-shaped mark atop its neck; short, blunt tail. Head pointed & tip up-turned. Dorsal scales velvety, slightly-keeled, in 15 midbody rows. Belly yellowish, cream or pearly. Juveniles often darker above & below.
Habitat
Found mainly in forests & woodlands of southeastern Africa, from Sierra Leon east to Ghana, in Nigeria east to western Kenya, south to northern Angola, w/ isolated records from Sudan, Zaire, Zambia.
Activity and Behavior
Mainly terrestrial but climbs into low bushes, mainly nocturnal but often active by day & at twilight, oviparous (4-8 eggs/ clutch). Preys mainly on frogs & toads.
Venom Characteristics
Not much known, but probably mainly hemotoxic. Not considered lethal to man. No known antivenom currently produced.
Causus maculatus
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: Causus rhombeatus (in part), Distichurus maculatus
Common Names: Spotted night adder, West African night adder
Description
Small, stout adder, w/ short head, adults usually about 50 cm long; body usually grayish, brownish, or olive green w/ darkish rhomboidal marks along dorsum. Dorsal scales velvety, weakly-keeled, in 17-22 midbody rows, sometimes w/ a dark vertebral line. Top of head & neck have a large, dark-edged forward-pointing V-shaped mark. Rarely w/ no dorsal markings in light colored, sandy areas. Snout pointed & up-turned. Belly white, cream or pinkish-grey, may have faint thin darker cross-bars.
Click for Image [1]
![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/C1MACULA.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Found in very wide variety of habitats in a band across western & central Africa; from forest to savanna to semi-desert. Present from senegal east to central Chad, southeast to Zaire, northeast into SE Sudan, & the low country & river gorges of SW Ethiopia, then southwest to northern Angola.
Activity and Behavior
Mainly nocturnal but sometimes active in day or at dusk, & mainly terrestrial but may climb low bushes, sometimes basks in sun. When threatened, inflates body & hisses loudly, not agressive but will bite quickly if further molested. Oviparous w/ 6-20 eggs/ clutch reported. Prey mainly on available frogs, lizards, & sometimes small mammals or birds.
Venom Characteristics
Not well known. Mainly hemotoxic, w/ possible cytotoxic factors. Bites generally cause immediate local pain, at least limited local swelling, sometimes fever, & painful regional lymphadenopathy. Second most common cause of snake-bite mortality in Senegal. No known antivenom currently produced.
Causus resimus
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: Causus jacksoni, Heterophis resimus
Common Names: Green night adder, Grune Nachtotter
Description
Small, fairly stout-bodied adder, adults usually 30-60 cm long (max. 75 cm); body usually vivid green (rarely darker forest green, or brown, in some western specimens) w/ indistinct dorsal bars or chevrons, dorsal scales weakly-keeled, w/ a velvety sheen, in 19-21 midbody rows. Hidden scale edges vivid bluish, & show when body is inflated. Very pretty snake. Chin & throat yellow, belly yellowish, cream or pearly, tongue pale blue & black.
Click for Image [1]
![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/C1RESIMU.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Found mainly in moist, warm, low-lying areas from sea level up to 2,000 m elevation. Also known from high grassland, wooded hills & valleys in western Kenya & Uganda; can be found along rivers that run through semi-desert, swamps, coastal scrubland, sugar cane plantations & rocky river gorges within its range. Fond of old quarries & borrow pits near roads, where shallow pools attract its amphibian prey. Overall distribution rather disjunct.
Activity and Behavior
Mainly nocturnal but active in day & basks in sun. Mainly terrestrial but often climbs low bushes & swims rather often (& swims very well). Oviparous w/ 4-12 eggs/ clutch laid by captured specimens. Preys mainly on frogs & toads. Defensive behavior similar to that of related species of night adders. See Causus bilineatus.
Venom Characteristics
Not well known, but mainly hemotoxic w/ some cytotoxic fator(s). Envenomation usually results only in local pain, swelling, & sometimes lymphadenophy. Not considered lethal to humans. No known antivenom currently produced.
Causus rhombeatus
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: Sepedon rhombeatus
Common Names: Common night adder, Rhombic night adder, Krotenotter
Description
Small, stout-bodied adder w/ dark, forward-pointing V-shaped mark atop its head, adults usually 30-60 cm long (max. 90 cm); body varies from gray to olive to pinkish brown; patterned w/ gray, black, or brown rhombs, chevrons or spots (may be white-edged). Dorsal scales weakly-keeled, velvety, in 15-23 midbody rows. Belly usually gray, but may be cream or yellow. Sometimes w/ dark brown vertebral stripe. Has limited ability to change color from brownish to greenish, or vice versa.
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![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/causus%20rhombeatus%203.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Found mainly in open woodland, grassland, & savanna near streams, marshes, or other damp areas. Fairly wide-spread in south-central & southeastern Africa.
Activity and Behavior
Mainly nocturnal & terrestrial, but spends much time basking during day &/or sheltered in trash piles, rock crevices, & other hiding places. Generally inoffensive & docile, seldom attempts to bite except under extreme provocation. When threatened, often flattens its body, hisses & "puffs", then may raise the front part of its body in an S-shaped loop. May flatten its neck, extend its tongue & move toward intruder (cobra-like). Oviparous (clutch size not reported, but probably usually <10 eggs.)
Venom Characteristics
Venom mildly cytotoxic (may also have a mild hemotoxic factor) & generally not very dangerous, but may cause acute discomfort. Envenomation usually results only in local pain, swelling, & lymphadenophy (rarely local tissue necrosis) at bite site. No reliable reports of fatalities. No known antivenom currently being produced.
Centruroides elegans
Identification
Family: Buthidae
Scientific Names: Centruroides elegans edentulus, C. e. elegans, C. e. insularis, C. e. meisei, C. e. var. limpidus
Common Names: Mexican bark scorpion, "Scorpion of the coast"
Description
Medium-sized, moderately slender scorpion, adults usually 50-70 mm long (max. 80+ mm) w/ cauda extended. body usually pale yellow-brown, darker dorsally, w/ 4 dark longitudinal lines atop the cephalothorax & 2 dark lines & 1 anterior dark spot on top of each preabdominal segment. Looks very similar to C. exilicauda.
Click for Image [1]
![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/CentElegansByChadLee06.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Mainly found in warm, relatively humid to seasonally dry places, mainly in coastal plains of the Pacific versant of central & southwestern Mexico, mainly from sea level to 100+ m elevation. Sometimes found in agricultural areas & near humans' habitations.
Activity and Behavior
Nocturnal, mainly terrestrial, but can quickly climb rough walls, stones or plants. Usually hides within organic debris or under stones or logs (especially under loose bark) during the day. Avoid humans, but will sting quickly (then try to escape) if molested, stepped on, or trapped within clothing being donned. Sometimes come into human living areas. Ovoviviparous & mainly prey on locally available insects or arthropods.
Venom Characteristics
Contains mainly fairly potent neurotoxic & cardiotoxic factors. Envenomation usually causes local pain, swelling, redness, & may cause discoloration. Systemic effects (often delayed 1-24 hrs.) can include dull ache, headache, nausea, muscle twitching, rapid heartbeat, or slurred speach. Has reportedly caused human deaths. Small children are usually more severely affected than adults.
Centruroides exilicauda
Identification
Family: Buthidae
Scientific Names: Centruroides gertschi, C. sculpturatus, C. s. gertschi
Common Names: Bark scorpion, sculptured scorpion (Gertschi form), deadly sculptured scorpion
Description
Medium-sized, moderately slender scorpion, adults usually no more than 7.5 cm long w/ tail fully extended. Body usually pale yellowish to medium-dark brown w/ varying patterns of longitudinal dorsal darker brown or grayish stripes or blotches. At least 4 different-looking "forms" (possibly subspecies) have been recognized. Tail (post-abdomen) moderately slender, pincers (pedipalps) not unusually large or dark.
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![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/CexcGertAdc_excilicauda_gertchiform3.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Mainly found in warm, relatively dry areas, usually w/ sandy soil & lots of loose bark, leaves or crevices in which they hide. Mainly limited to arid regions of southwestern U.S. & northern Mexico.
Activity and Behavior
Nocturnal, usually hide above ground but under loose bark, rocks, leaves, sticks or other debris during daytime. Prey mainly on available insects & other arthropods. Avoid humans unless cornered, stepped on, or brushed against (usually while hunting at night, or when trapped in clothing being donned). They will sting quickly & then try to escape. Often come into houses. Ovoviviparous, usually >20 per "litter," young may ride on mother's back until 2nd instar.
Venom Characteristics
Mainly neurotoxic. A sting usually causes a painful local reaction w/ reddening, swelling & discomfort (often local discoloration). It may also cause various systemic effects distant from the sting site, like progressive numbness, swelling, spreading of dull pain, muscle twitching, nausea, rapid heartbeat, slurred speach, etc. The most commonly reported cause of human deaths from stings by this species is cardiac failure.
Centruroides infamatus
Identification
Family: Buthidae
Scientific Names: Centruroides infamatus infamatus, C. i. ornatus
Common Names: Mexican bark scorpion
Description
Medium-sized, relatively slender scorpions, adults seldom >70 mm long. Body yellowish-brown to medium-brown, w/ variable darker blotches & 2 rather broad longitudinal dark stripes on dorsum of cephalothorax. Legs pale-brown to yellow-brown. Pincers moderately long & thin w/ dark tips & dark sting tip.
Click for Image [1]
![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/CentInfamatusByDaveGaban06.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Not well characterized, but mainly reported from warm, relatively dry or seasonally dry sites, usually w/ sandy soil w/ considerable amounts of organic debris built up beneath scattered vegetation (but sometimes in rocky areas, too). Limited mainly to moderate elevations in central & southwestern Mexico, range overlaps that of C. suffusus.
Activity and Behavior
Nocturnal, mainly terrestrial, but can climb any rough surface very well. Usually hide within or under organic debris or crevices under rocks or logs (especially under loose bark) during the day. Ovoviviparous, & prey mainly on locally available insects or arthropods. Usually avoid humans & large animals, unless molested, stepped on or trapped within clothing being donned. Then they will sting quickly & try to escape.
Venom Characteristics
Contains mainly potent neurotoxic & cardiotoxic factors. Stings usually (mainly) cause local pain, swelling, redness & often discoloration, but serious envenomation & deaths of humans have also been reported. Systemic symptoms, when they occur, are often very similar to those caused by the venom of C. exilicauda.
Centruroides limpidus
Identification
Family: Buthidae
Scientific Names: Centruroides limpidus limpidus, C. l. tecomanus
Common Names: Mexican bark scorpion
Description
Medium to large-sized scorpion, adults usually about 50-60 mm long, but often reach 70+ mm. Body usually medium yellowish-brown, cephalothorax darker dorsally, w/ 4 dark longitudinal dorsal lines, & having a dark spot between those lines at both the front & back edge of each tergite. Legs & postabdomen lighter brownish, pincers relatively elongated & narrow w/ dark tips, sting dark at tip.
Click for Image [1]
![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/CentLimpidus3ByRcWest.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Mainly found in margins of dry to wet forest clearings in lower elevations in central & southern Mexico. Often numerous in crevices of rough adobe walls of peasants' homes & along junctures of such walls & thatched rooves, & similar habitats. May be present in Nicaragua, but not documented there yet.
Activity and Behavior
Nocturnal, mainly terrestrial, but climbs very well. Usually hides under bark, leaves or other organic debris during the day. Preys mainly on insects & other arthropods, sometimes cannibalistic. Ovoviviparous, typically >20 young per "litter".
Venom Characteristics
Potent neurotoxic & cardiotoxic factors, similar to that of C. suffusus. Like other members of this genus, these scorpions tend to sting quickly, then try to escape, if brushed against, stepped on, or trapped in clothing being donned. This species has caused a significant number of human fatalities within its range.
Centruroides noxius
Identification
Family: Buthidae
Scientific Names:
Common Names: Scorpion of Nayarit, Mexican bark scorpion
Description
Small scorpion, adults seldom 50 mm long. Cephalothorax & abdomen uniformly dark, often w/ lateral margins of pre-abdominal tergites lighter (brownish to dark-yellowish). Body sometimes w/ a reddish tinge. No obvious stripes. Subaculear tooth on telson very strongly developed.
Habitat
Mainly found in dry to arid sites in areas of limited vegetation in sandy & rocky soil. Sometimes found near human habitations. Found mainly on the Pacific slopes of west-central Mexico (mainly Nayarit state, but also from Jalisco & Sinaloa), reported from near sea level to above 500 m elevation.
Activity and Behavior
Nocturnal, usually hides under leaf litter & debris (sometimes under loose bark of trees or bushes) in daytime. Mainly terrestrial, but sometimes climbs rough surfaces. Ovoviviparous, litter numbers not reported (probably <20 young/ litter). Prey mainly on locally available insects & other arthropods.
Venom Characteristics
Includes potent neurotoxic & cardiotoxic factors. Has been reported to cause serious human envenomations, including some deaths. Stings usually due to a human brushing against, stepping on, or trapping one of these scorpions in clothing being donned.
Centruroides spp.
Identification
Family: Buthidae
Scientific Names: Scorpio spp. (in part), Centrurus spp. (in part), Rhopalurus spp. (in part). [ Note: There are currently 50+ named species recognized in this genus, but only about 6 spp. are of medical importance (see medically important spp. addressed separately, individually).]
Common Names: Bark scorpions, house scorpions, common scorpions, "sculptured" scorpions
Description
Medium to large-sized, moderately-slender scorpions, adults usually 50-80 mm long (max. 110+ mm; varies by spp.). Body usually pale yellowish to medium-brown (some spp. dark brown), w/ varying patterns of darker gray or brownish dorsal stripes or blotches. Tail (postabdomen) rather slender, pincers rather slender & not very robust (= usually thin), legs usually pale yellow-brown. Most spp. are sexually dimorphic w/ thinner, longer males & stouter, shorter females.
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![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/ScrpCen2.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Found mainly in warm, relatively dry areas, usually w/ sandy soil & lots of loose bark (e.g. on or under logs), leaves, surface debris or crevices in which to hide. Most spp. limited to arid or semi-arid regions of the southwestern U.S., Mexico, Central America, the Antilles, &/or northern South America.
Activity and Behavior
Nocturnal, usually hide in crevices or under bark or debris by day, often come into houses. Prey mainly on available insects & other arthropods. Avoid humans unless cornered, stepped on or brushed against (usually while hunting at night or if trapped in clothing being donned), then sting quickly & try to escape. Ovoviviparous, >20 per "litter," young may ride on mother's back until 2nd instar. Whole body fluoresces (usually yellowish-green) in certain wavelengths of UV light.
Venom Characteristics
Mainly neurotoxic, w/ cytotoxic factors in some spp. Potency varies w/ different spp. A sting (envenomation) usually causes local pain, swelling, redness & discomfort (may be delayed 1-24 hrs.); sometimes spreads & includes numbness. Systemic effects may include muscle twitching, nausea, rapid heartbeat, slurred speach, sweating, coma & death (for some spp.). Cardiac failure reportedly causes most human deaths. Venom effects more severe in children than adults.
Centruroides suffusus
Identification
Family: Buthidae
Scientific Names: Centruroides suffusus chiaravigli, C. s. suffusus
Common Names: Durango scorpion, Mexican bark scorpion, Alacran de Durango
Description
Medium to large-sized scorpion, adults usually 50-65 mm long (max. 85+ mm). Body usually yellowish to light-brown (rarely reddish-brown), w/ 2 dark longitudinal stripes on pre-abdominal tergites. Males' postabdomen is 8.5X the length of cephalothorax; 5th caudal segment is 4.25-4.75X its own width; Vesicle of telson is >1.78X as long as the aculeus (sting tip).
Habitat
Mainly found in moderately dry, seasonally dry, or semi-arid sites, at a range of elevations (from near sea level to above 1,500 m), mainly in west-central Mexico. Often found near cultivated sites & human homes within its range.
Activity and Behavior
Nocturnal, mainly terrestrial (but climbs well). Usually hides during the day under available organic debris, bark, stones, or in various natural (or artificial) crevices. Mainly preys on whatever insects or arthropods are locally available, sometimes cannibalistic. Ovoviviparous, but litter size quite variable (5-30+ have been reported).
Venom Characteristics
Has potent neurotoxic & cardiotoxic factors. Will sting quickly then try to escape, if disturbed, stepped on, or if trapped inside clothing items being donned. Has a reputation for causing numerous serious envenomations & deaths of humans each year (significantly fewer when effective antivenom is available) within its range.
Cerastes cerastes
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: Aspis cerastes, Cerastes cerastes cerastes, C. c. hoofieni, C. c. karlhartli, C. c. mutila, C. cornutus, Coluber cerastes
Common Names: Desert horned viper, Hornviper
Description
Medium-sized, moderately stout-bodied viper, tail short, adults usually 50-60 cm long (max. 90 cm); body generally yellowish, yellowish-brown, pale-gray, pinkish, or pale-brown, w/ rows of dark spots along back. Belly whitish. May have long spine-like horn above each eye.
![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/407-Animals-Snakes-Desert%20Horned%20Viper%20Egypt%203.jpg){kind=link}
![[2]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/snake3.jpg){kind=link}
![[3]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/CerastesCerastes1bHdFrontCu6o6chimage.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Found mainly in deserts where there are rock outcroppings & fine sand, often in very arid places; however, may be found near oases. Limited mainly to northern Africa & the Middle East.
Activity and Behavior
Mainly nocturnal & terrestrial (semi-fossorial). Can make itself almost invisible by wriggling down into loose sand. Often hides in rodent holes & under stones. When irritated, rubs inflated loops of body together to make a "rasping hiss." Can strike quickly if disturbed.
Venom Characteristics
Venom primarily hemotoxic. Local symptoms include edema, redness, internal hemorrhage, & areas of gangrene. Venom has coagulant activities at low concentrations, anticoagulant activities at high concentrations. Fatalities rare but have been documented.
Cerastes gasperettii
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: Aspis cerastes (in part), Cerastes cerastes (in part), C. c. cerastes (in part), C. c. gasperettii, Cerastes gasperettii gasperettii, C. cornutus (in part), C. g. mendelssohni, Cerastes cerastes gasperetti, Vipera cerastes (in part)
Common Names: Gasperetti’s horned desert viper, Arabian horned viper
Description
Small to medium-sized, fairly stout-bodied viper, adults usually 30-60 cm long (max. 85 cm); body usually yellowish, yellowish-brown, pale-gray, pinkish, or pale-brown w/ rows of dark spots along back. Belly whitish. Tip of tail may be black. May have long spine-like horn (at least prominent brow ridge) above each eye.
![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/CerastesGasperetti1.jpg){kind=link}
![[2]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/CerastesGasperetti2.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Found mainly in deserts w/ rock outcroppings & fine sand, often in very arid places; however, may be found near oases. Limited to northeastern Africa & the Middle East.
Activity and Behavior
Mainly nocturnal & terrestrial (semi-fossorial). Can make itself almost invisible by wriggling down into loose sand. Often hides in rodent burrows & under stones. When aggitated, rubs inflated loops of its body together to make a "rasping hiss." Can strike quickly if disturbed.
Venom Characteristics
Venom primarily hemotoxic. Local symptoms may include pain, edema, redness; may have hematoma at site of bite & regional lymphadenopathy. No human fatalities reported (at least not documented), so far. No known antivenom currently produced.
Cerastes vipera
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: Aspis vipera, Cerastes aegyptiacus, C. vipera, Coluber vipera (in part), Vipera aegyptiaca, V. avicennae, V. cerastes (in part)
Common Names: Sahara sand viper, Sahara desert viper, Avicennaviper
Description
Small, moderately heavy-bodied viper, adults usually 20-35 cm long (max. 48 cm); body generally yellowish, gray, or brown, w/ row of dark spots along back. Head lacks supra-orbital "horns."
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![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/C1VIPERA.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Mainly found in sand dunes, loose sand, & desert shrub from sea level up to about 300 m elevation. Limited to northern Africa & parts of the Middle East.
Activity and Behavior
Terrestrial, oviparous, mainly nocturnal; usually spends day buried in sand at base of scrub. Not usually aggressive. When provoked, gathers body into coil & rubs its sides together to produce a rasping or "hissing" noise.
Venom Characteristics
Venom contains mainly mild cytotoxic & neurotoxic components. Bites reportedly painful, but usually not serious.
Cerrophidion barbouri
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: Agkistrodon browni, Bothrops barbouri, Porthidium barbouri, Trimeresurus barbouri
Common Names: Barbour’s montane pitviper, nauyaca, vibora colorado, vibora sorda
Description
Small, moderately stout, terrestrial pitviper, adults usually 30-40 cm long (max. 51 cm). Body usually reddish-brown, w/ a darker wavy middorsal stripe, 25-28 dark-brown blotches along sides, & 17-19 midbody dorsal scale rows. Has dark-brown post-ocular stripe. Dorsal pattern becomes obscured w/ age. Belly slightly lighter w/ irregular, slightly-darker blotches along sides. Juveniles usually pale-brown to greenish-brown above, w/ sharper dorsal pattern & chartreuse tail.
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![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/C1BARBOU.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Most commonly found in pine-oak & cloud forest at 2,400-3,300 m elevation, in the mountains of Guerreo, Mexico.
Activity and Behavior
Mainly terrestrial, sometimes climb onto bushes or stumps, often hide under logs, rocks, or debris. Mainly diurnal, very active, fast-moving, often found along forest edges or in clearings; usually quick to retreat when disturbed. Ovoviviparous w/ at least one observed litter of 6 young. Prey mainly on available arthropods, small mammals, & other reptiles (& sometimes birds).
Venom Characteristics
Not much known, but mainly hemotoxic w/ additional myotoxic factors. Usual symptoms of envenomation may include: local pain & swelling, general itching, headache, nausea, & light-headedness. No confirmed human deaths, so far, due to envenomation by this species. No known antivenom currently produced.
Cerrophidion godmani
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: Bothrops godmani, Bothriechis godmani, B. trianguligera, Lachesis godmani, Porthidium godmani, Trimeresurus godmani
Common Names: Engl.: Godman's montane pitviper, Ger.: Godman-Berggrubenotter, Costa Riac: borot kabi, dudaban, toboba de altura, Guatemala: cantil frijolillo, sheta, tamagas, Honduras: timbo chingo, tamagas cafe, Mexico: nauyaca del frio, Nicaragua: toboa oscura, toboita
Description
Small, moderately-stout, terrestrial pitviper, adults usually 46-50 cm long (max. 82 cm); colors & patterns quite variable, body usually brown, reddish-brown, grayish-brown to nearly orange; dark brown blotches often merge to form a zigzag dorsal stripe, 21 midbody dorsal scale rows, dark postorbital stripe, venter pale yellow to orange w/ no mottling, darker toward tail.
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![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/CerrophidionGodmani1990ByJTashjian%202.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Found in a wide range of low montane wet forest & cloud forest, lower montane dry forest, largely pin oak; & high montane forest & meadow. Occurs at 1,400-3,491 m elevation. Limited to higher elevations of parts of southeastern Mexico & Central America.
Activity and Behavior
Mainly terrestrial, & mainly diurnal, often seen crawling or coiled along forest paths. May rarely climb up onto a log or stump, but usually found beside or under logs, rocks, or other large pieces of debris. Can move very rapidly, usually avoids humans, but will strike quickly if disturbed. Ovoviviparous w/ 2-12 young/ litter observed for captured specimens. Prey on a variety of available arthropods, small mammals, reptiles (mainly lizards), salamanders, & sometimes birds.
Venom Characteristics
Not well known. Mainly hemotoxic, w/ potent myotoxic & proteolytic factors. Symptoms of envenomation of humans may include: intense local pain, extensive local swelling (may involve whole limb), widespread itching, fever, headache, nausea & light-headedness (to the point of collapse in one observed case). Few bites & no fatalities of humans reported for this species.
Cerrophidion petlalcalensis
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: Cerrophidion petlalcalense
Common Names: Petlalcala montane pitviper
Description
Small, fairly stout-bodied, montane pitviper, adults usually 30-40 cm long (max. 46+ cm). Body usually dark reddish-brown to gray-brown dorsally, w/ 21-32 darker-brown lateral blotches, each narrowly white-edged, forming a zigzag pattern along vertebral line, w/ 19 midbody dorsal scale rows. Has dark-brown postorbital stripe. Belly dark-brown w/ 1-2 pale marks (usually near middle), tail may have up to 5 thin white crossbands dorsally & is pale yellow to whitish below.
Habitat
Found mainly in pine-oak forest, at 2,100-2,300 m elevation in western Veracruz state, eastern Mexico. Known only from the type locality on Cerro de Petlalcala, Municipio San Andres Tenejapan.
Activity and Behavior
Not much known. Mainly diurnal & terrestrial (maybe semi-fossorial). Basks in sun & can move very rapidly. Usually avoid humans, but will strike quickly if cornered & molested. Ovoviviparous, litter size not reported. Prey on various available arthropods, small mammals, lizards, salamanders, & occasionally small birds. For details of behavior of a closely-related species, See Cerrophidion godmani.
Venom Characteristics
Not much known. Mainly hemotoxic, possibly also w/ myotoxic factors. Humans rarely bitten by this species, & no confirmed serious envenomations or fatalities due to its bites. For symptoms typical of envenomation by a closely-related species, See Cerrophidion godmani.
Cerrophidion tzotzilorum
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: Bothrops tzotzilorum, Porthidium tzotzilorum
Common Names: Tzotzil montane pit viper
Description
Small, moderately stout-bodied, terrestrial pitviper, adults usually <50 cm long; body color variable, including dark-gray, dark grayish-brown, or rust. Usually w/ a series of many dark-brown oval to rhomboid blotches dorsally, often fused into a zigzag middorsal line. Has dark postorbital stripe (narrowly bordered by white) & 19-23 midbody dorsal scale rows. Belly light to medium brown, often w/ irregular darker blotches (usually become darker & more extensive toward tail).
Click for Image [1]
![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/C1TZOTZI.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Most commonly found in humid, but seasonally dry, pine-oak forests, w/ tall pines & epiphyte-laden older (mature) oaks, at 2,000-2,500 m elevation. Most often found under logs, rocks or large pieces of debris. Limited to Chiapas, Mexico.
Activity and Behavior
Very secretive, apparently diurnal. Mainly terrestrial, possibly (reportedly almost completely) fossorial. Encountered most frequently under logs, rocks, &/or larger pieces of debris within its typical habitat. Probably ovoviviparous (litter size not known), & probably preys on arthropods, small mammals (e.g., shrews), & lizards available within its habitat.
Venom Characteristics
Not much known. Mainly hemotoxic, possibly w/ myotoxic factors. Seldom encountered by humans, & no well-documented bites, serious envenomations, or fatalities of humans due to this species. No known antivenom currently produced. For more detailed information about the venom of a closely-related species, & its effects in cases of human envenomations, See Cerrophidion godmani.
Chironex fleckeri
Identification
Family: Chirodropidae
Scientific Names:
Common Names: Box jellyfish, sea wasp, indringa, marine stinger
Description
Semi-transparent bluish "box-shaped" jellyfish w/ four "arms" (pedalia) at the base of its main body (bell), which in full-grown individuals is about 30 cm (1 ft.) in diameter & 20 cm high. Bundles of up to 15 thick tentacles, each nearly covered w/ stinging cells (nematocysts), are inserted on each pedalium. Each tentacle may be extended to 3 m (10 ft.) long or retracted to 75 cm (about 2.5 ft.) long.
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![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/BxJelyfshCfleckeri2g25-7-6.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Found only in marine waters of the southwestern Pacific Ocean, mainly along the northern & eastern coasts of Australia (Northern Territory, northern Queensland), & from waters off New Guinea, Malaysia, Borneo, & certain other Southwest Pacific islands.
Activity and Behavior
These free-swimming jellyfish (medusae) mainly stay in fairly shallow (often very shallow; to less than 65 cm) coastal marine waters above sandy bottoms. They move actively via "jet propulsion" by rhythmically contracting their bell. They feed by engulfing various prey (often small fish) which have been paralyzed by their nematocysts. They tend to avoid areas directly above shallow coral reefs. Most active & numerous near shores during annual "stinger season" (1 Oct.-1 Jun.).
Venom Characteristics
Contains potent cytotoxic (affecting membranes), cardiotoxic, & possibly also neurotoxic proteins. Contact w/ a tentacle usually causes intense local pain, sometimes a spreading numbness, & local tissue necrosis. Death usually due to cardiac problems, sometimes to anaphylactic shock; & may occur within 24 hrs in severe stinging cases. Typical signs include urticarial wheales at each nematocyst sting site. Victims often become cyanotic soon after being seriously stung.
Chiropsalmus quadrigatus
[ TOC ]
Identification
Family: Chirodropidae
Scientific Names: Chiropsalmus sp. [ Note: At least three additional species in this genus; C. quadrumanus, C. zygonema, & an un-named Australian coastal species called the "Gove Jellyfish" all cause many painful stings of fishermen & swimmers every year, NONE of those 3 has been documented to have caused any human deaths, so far.]
Common Names: Box jellyfish, fire medusa, indringa, habukurage (in Japan), marine stinger (causes "Irukandji syndrome")
Description
Semi-transparent bluish, "box-shaped" jellyfish w/ 4 "arms" (pedalia) at the base of the main body (bell), which when full-grown is about the size of a grapefruit. Bundles of up to 15 tentacles, each covered w/ stinging cells (nematocysts), are inserted on each pedalium. Each tentacle may be extended to 3 m (10 ft.) long or retracted to about 75 cm (about 2.5 ft.) long.
Click for Image [1]
![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/Chiropsalmus_quadrigatusByMDawson.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Found mainly (only) in marine waters in the western Pacific Ocean, from Australia to the Philippines. Appear to travel toward mainland shores during calm weather on a rising tide. Often found in river mouths in shallow (<1 ft. deep) water above sandy bottoms. Have been reported very rarely from the Caribbean, but usually much too rare there to pose a common human health threat.
Activity and Behavior
The free-swimming medusae mainly stay in fairly shallow water (max. 20 m deep) over sandy bottoms, often near mouth of a river or creek. Prey on (engulf) various fish or crustaceans paralyzed by their nematocysts. Move very actively (up to 5 mph) via "jet propulsion" by rhythmic contraction of their bell. Tend to avoid areas directly above shallow coral reefs.
Venom Characteristics
Includes potent cytotoxins (especially affecting membranes), cardiotoxins & neurotoxins. Contact w/ a tentacle usually causes intense pain, numbness, local urticarial wheals at each sting site, & can stop a human's heart in <30 sec. Some victims have had limited local pain, then unconsciousness (even coma) in <24 hrs. Human death is usually due to heart stoppage or anaphylactic shock.
Chrysaora lactea
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Identification
Family: Pelagiidae (Order: Coronatae)
Scientific Names: No synonyms
Common Names: Uruguayian summer jellyfish, scalloped-medusate summer jellyfish, Southwestern Atlantic jellyfish
Description
Medium-sized pelagic jellyfish, w/ adult medusa nearly hemispherical and up to 25 cm. in diameter, with up to 40 tentacles, arranged in groups of 5, w/ the central one being longest in each group, in each one-eighth section around the dome (bell, umbrella). The exterior surface of the dome is thickly covered with very small, blunt papillae. The stomach pouches are roughly similar in size and shape, wider at the inner end, sometimes pear-shaped in outline. Color is usually fairly uniform for any given individual specimen, but individuals vary from pale milky-white, with a weak purplish tint, to a pale lilac tint. They may have brownish-red radial lines, spots and/or patches on the outer surface of the umbrella in some populations. Marginal tentacles are usually colorless, but may be pale reddish-purple. Mouth arms and subumbrellar ostia are often spotted dark brown.
Habitat
Mainly found swimming in open southwestern Atlantic Ocean, and sometimes in near-coastal waters and along beaches from Jamaica to Argentina. They sometimes develop in large numbers (called “blooms”) in late spring or summer, with many individuals being washed up onto beaches along the coasts of Uruguay and southeastern Brazil, from near Sao Paulo to the central Atlantic coast of Argentina.
Activity and Behavior
These jellyfish usually swim actively by pulsating contractions of their dome-like bell (medusa) in marine waters, capturing their prey by stinging them w/ special cells (nematocytes) located in large numbers along their fairly long, trailing, filamentous tentacles. Paralyzed prey is drawn into the central stomach through a ventral mouth that extends into the lower surface of their main medusal arms. Adult forms have been observed swimming nearer the ocean surface during the day, but they apparently do not display distinctly diurnal or nocturnal activity. Spring or summer storms often deposit large numbers of adults and larger sized free-swimming immature stages onto beaches where they may pose a stinging hazard to unwary persons or animals.
Venom Characteristics
The nematocytes (stinging cells) of this species deliver a mild to moderately-potent neurotoxic factors. Sting effects usually last 30-60 min. May trigger anaphylactic reaction in some persons. This species reportedly has caused multiple painful stings & a few rare deaths of humans (mainly children) within its range.
Conus clerii
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Identification
Family: Conidae ( Class: Gastropoda; Clade: Neogastropoda )
Scientific Names: Conus carcellesi, C. clenchi, C. iheringi, C. tostesi, C. xanthocinctus, Dendroconus xanthocinctus, Leptoconus clerii, L. iheringi, L. tostesi
Common Names: Clery’s cone, (a) Southwestern Atlantic cone shell
Description
Small- to medium-sized marine gastropod (sea snail), shell up to about 6 cm long (max. reported 6.5 cm), w/ a solid calcareous spiral-shaped shell, light in weight w/ a good-to-high gloss. Shell is low biconical in shape w/ a spire w/ straight to slightly concave sides, low-to-medium in height w/ a sharply-pointed apex & sometimes distinctly stepped whorls at the wider end. Whorl tops flat to slightly concave w/ a few faint spiral ridges crossed by stronger axial ridges. Earliest whorls are weakly nodulose becoming smooth on latest whorls. Body whorl has variably angled shoulders (sometimes bluntly, sometimes very sharply), slightly convex-to-straight sides tapering to a narrow base, surface relatively smooth except for a few low spiral ridges at the base & some scattered spiral & axial threads. Shell aperture is uniformly wide & downward sloping below the shoulder, w/ a thin, sharp, straight to slightly convex outer lip. Columella is hidden from external view. Body whorl ground color is white, cream or pinkish tinted, with brown (often w/ an orange tint), irregular, vertically oriented, squiggle shaped markings, sometimes in weakly defined zones above & below a weakly defined, ground colored mid-body band. Some specimens also have a few rows of reddish-brown or brown spots or dashes circling the mid-body. Base is usually ground colored. Spire is white w/ variably sized, brown blotches, often radiating. Apex & shell interior are usually white or pinkish.
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![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/Conus_clerii_1Xwikiped17AugXii.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Mainly found resting or crawling along the sea floor in fairly deep water (usually 10-100 m. deep) in the open southwestern Atlantic Ocean. They are occasionally found in near-coastal waters & along beaches of Argentina, Brazil & Uruguay. Sometimes a number of individuals may be washed up by storms into shallow water or even onto beaches (where they may be stepped on or picked up by persons wading or walking near the water’s edge) along the coasts of Argentina, Brazil, & Uruguay. There is one specimen recorded from the Panama Canal Zone, but this species is found mainly from the northeastern coast of Brazil southwards along the southwestern Atlantic shores to northern Argentina (i.e., 22-39 degrees south latitude).
Activity and Behavior
Cone shell mollusks (cone snails, or sea snails) usually crawl along, on or within the mud or sand on the sea floor, in shallow to fairly deep marine waters (10-100 m. deep), capturing prey by stinging it with a special harpoon-like radular tooth connected to a venom gland. Paralyzed prey is drawn into the central mouth (buccal cavity) within the muscular foot. The animal’s foot must be protruding out of its shell or it cannot “sting” its prey or inflict a defensive wound on a potential predator. The radula (w/ its dart-like envenoming tooth) is located at the narrow (sharper-pointed) end of the animal’s shell. This species has not been reported, so far, to be either mainly diurnal or nocturnal, but observations in their natural habitat have been very limited.
Venom Characteristics
This species has a moderately potent neurotoxin w/ possible (rare) cardiotoxic factors. Sting effects vary w/ individuals, but usually include: localized very sharp pain (sometimes excruciating), inflammation, limited swelling, numbness, & mild cyanosis at the wound site. Some victims’ may have mild-to-severe headache, nausea, vomiting, breathing difficulties &/or hearing impairment. Some cases of severe flaccid paralysis have been reportedly caused by envenomation (a “sting”) by this species. Their venom can be lethal to adult humans, & even lesser “stings” may trigger an anaphylactic reaction in some persons. This species reportedly has caused multiple painful stings & at least a few humans deaths (mainly young/small children) within its range. Most “stings” inflicted on humans by any cone snail, including by this species, have occurred when the “pretty” shell (still containing the live animal) has been either stepped on or intentionally handled (e.g., picked up & examined) by an incautious person.
Conus geographus
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Identification
Family: Conidae
Scientific Names: Rollus geographus [Note: This is the most lethal species (to humans) of >400 currently named spp. in this genus. At least 8 spp. have been reported to cause human fatalities. All 8 are found mainly in shallow marine sites w/ sandy or rubble-coated bottoms.]
Common Names: Geographer cone, anboina, cone shell
Description
Marine snail w/ cone-shaped shell, usually cream colored w/ irregular blotches of parallel thin dark-brown stripes & small rings on most of shell's surface. When mature, usually 4-6 in. (10-15 cm) long x 2-4 in. (5-10 cm) diameter at large end. A reddish tube (siphon), often w/ dark ring at its end, & whitish root-like probe (proboscis) are protruded through the pointed (front) end of the shell. The foot is everted through the long ventral opening & used to crawl, dig, etc.
![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/ConusGeographusDorslDrawngBySArita2k.jpg){kind=link}
![[2]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/ConusGeographaVentrl1970DrawingBySArita2m.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Mainly found in shallow marine waters down to 100+ ft. (30+ m) deep, & mainly in tropics or subtropics, sometimes wash up onto beaches. Mainly associated w/ coral reefs & near-shore shallows throughout most of the south Pacific & Indian Oceans (Polynesia to East Africa). Most dangerous species (to humans) are usually found in shallow (e.g., <20 ft. deep), fairly clear waters w/ sandy or rubble bottoms.
Activity and Behavior
Usually burrow in bottom debris or sand by day & hunt by night. This species preys mainly on fish (others on marine invertebrates or worms) by harpooning (stinging) prey w/ hollow radular tooth, injecting potent paralytic venom, then consuming body of victim. Many spp. lay egg masses on seaweed or projecting corals. Proboscis is extended & contact w/ prey triggers ejection of tooth into victim. Prey usually surrounded by proboscis & partly digested before being passed into snail's main body.
Venom Characteristics
Potent neurotoxins, may have 4 different categories of poisonous factors (conitoxins). Serious & painful envenomations (sometimes fatal) usually occur when swimmers (waders) pick up shells w/ live snails still inside. Human death usually due to respiratory or cardiac stoppage (blockage of nerve signals to heart &/or diaphragm).
Conus textile
Identification
Family: Conidae
Scientific Names: Darioconus textile [Note: This species has one of the most attractive-looking shells (among >400 named spp. in this genus), & is most common in very shallow water. Humans very often notice & pick these up w/ live snails still inside.]
Common Names: Cloth-of-gold cone, textile cone, woven cone, tagayasanminashi, cone shell
Description
Marine snail w/ cone-shaped shell, usually cream patterned w/ goldish blotches (w/ darker brown cross-stripes) interspersed w/ irregular (mainly triangular) reddish-brown marks. Mature specimens usually 3-4 in. (7.5-10 cm) long x 1.5-2 in. (3-5 cm) diameter at large end. Tube-like siphon whitish w/ reddish ring around tip & wide (5+ mm wide) blackish band about 1 cm back from tip. Proboscis cream to pinkish. Foot used to move & dig, is everted through long ventral slot.
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![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/ConsTextileRadula&SiphonCu1970ByPSaunders2r.jpg){kind=link}
![[2]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/ConusTextileDorsl1970DrawingByKTomita2f.jpg){kind=link}
![[3]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/ConusTextileVentrl1970DrawingByKTomita2h.jpg){kind=link}
![[4]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/ConusTextilLivNAqSand1986ByKGillett2d.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Mainly found in relatively shallow near-shore fairly clear marine waters w/ sandy bottom (seldom >20 ft. deep). mainly limited to tropical or subtropical regions of the Indian & southern Pacific Oceans (from Polynesia to the Red Sea). Sometimes wash up onto beaches.
Activity and Behavior
Usually burrow into loose sand or bottom debris during day, hunt at night. This species preys mainly on other marine snails & mulloscs (rarely on small fish or worms). They harpoon (sting) prey w/ 1-cm. long hollow radular tooth, through which they inject venom, then engulf paralyzed prey w/ their proboscis. Often lay egg masses on seaweed or coral projections. Large specimens of this species can project proboscis >2.5 cm (1 in.).
Venom Characteristics
Potent neurotoxin, have up to 4 categories of conotoxins. Serious envenomations (sometimes fatal) usually occur when a swimmer (wader) picks up a shell w/ the live snail still inside. Human death is usually due to the venom blocking nerve signals to the heart &/or diaphragm, stopping blood flow &/or breathing. Symptoms usually include immediate local pain, tingling, difficulty speaking, slowed breathing, progressive hypotension, lethargy, & coma.
Crotalus adamanteus
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: Crotalus durissus (in part)
Common Names: Engl.: Eastern diamondback rattlesnake, Florida diamondback rattlesnake, water rattlesnake, Ger.: Diamant-Klapperschlange
Description
Heavy-bodied terrestrial pitviper, largest species of rattlesnakes, adults usually 1.2-2.0 m long (max. 2.51 m); body brownish, brownish-yellow, olive or brownish-gray; patterned w/ 24-35 dorsal dark brown to black diamonds, each outlined w/ whitish scales & lighter in the center; 25-31 midbody dorsal scale rows, dark post ocular stripe, belly yellowish or cream w/ dark mottling mainly along sides.
Click for Image [1]
![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/DiamondbackRatlr06ByChetOrChrisPowell2h.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Found mainly on lowland coastal plains, up to about 500 m elevation; often along streams & in swamps from southeastern North Carolina south through southern Georgia & most of Florida, then west through southern Alabama & Mississippi to southeastern Louisiana.
Activity and Behavior
Mainly nocturnal & terrestrial, but often bask in sunlight, & sometimes ambush (occasionally actively hunt) prey in the daytime. Usually docile, vibrate tail rapidly ("rattle") but can strike quickly if disturbed.
Venom Characteristics
Mainly hemotoxic. Relatively long fangs & large venom reservoirs can lead to injection of large amounts of venom during a single bite. Occasionally cause human fatalities, especially in remote sites or w/ delayed treatment.
Crotalus aquilus
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: Crotalus lugubris, C. triseriatus, C. t. aquilus, C. t. quadrangularis, C. t. triseriatus
Common Names: Queretaran dusky rattlesnake, vibora de cascabel
Description
Small to medium-sized, heavy-bodied terrestrial pitviper, adults usually <50 cm long (max. 67.8 cm); body variable, pale to dark brown, greenish, to gray, patterned w/ 21-41 darker quadrangular dorsal blotches, dark postocular stripe; venter yellowish, pinkish or very pale gray, w/ dark brown or gray mottling (heavier toward tail). Has a pair of upper front folding fangs.
Habitat
Found mainly in open grassy & usually rocky habitats north of the Transverse Volcanic Cordillera in central Mexico.
Activity and Behavior
Mainly terrestrial & nocturnal, but basks in the sun; preys mainly on small animals, birds, etc. Coils body & vibrates tail ("rattles") when threatened. Generally slow moving, but can strike very quickly if disturbed or surprized. Ovoviviparous w/ avg. of about 7 young/ litter.
Venom Characteristics
Not very well known, but mainly hemotoxic, possibly w/ myotoxic (proteolytic) factors. Potentially lethal to humans, but not well documented.
Crotalus atrox
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: Caudisona atrox var. sonoriensis, Crotalus adamanteus atrox, C. a. atrox, C. cinereous, C. confluentus, C. a. sonoriensis, C. sonoriensis
Common Names: Engl.: Western diamondback rattlesnake, coon-tail rattler, Spanish (local names): vibora de cascabel, vibora serrana, Ger.: Texas-Klapperschlange
Description
Large, heavy-bodied, terrestrial pitviper, adults avg. 1.0-2.1 m long (max. 2.3+ m); largest rattlesnake in its range. Body usually gray-brown & dusty-looking; may be pinkish, yellowish, red, or chalky-white (& resembling colors of local soils); w/ 24-45 dorsal dark gray-brown to brown blotches (diamond-like toward tail). Head usually w/ dark postorbital stripes, not reaching corner of head. Belly pale (whitish). Tail pale w/ 2-8 (usually 4-6) black bands, usually not complete below.
![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/C1ATROX_.jpg){kind=link}
![[2]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/WDimondbkByLtBarryFurmanDSCN3445_edited.3o7.JPG){kind=link}
Habitat
Most common in seasonally dry to semi-arid lowlands; other habitats include deserts, steep rocky hillsides, thorn forest, & tropical deciduous forest in the south. Found up to 2,450 m, but most common at <1,500 m elevation. Found in Southwestern U.S from California east to Arkansas & southward into Mexico.
Activity and Behavior
Terrestrial, activity more temperature-dependent than light-dependent; mainly nocturnal during warmer periods, diurnal during cooler periods. Quick to escape (move away) from humans, it will defend itself w/ a large supply of potent venom if threatened or if cornered. Prey mainly on available small to medium-sized mammals, birds, etc.
Venom Characteristics
Primarily hemotoxic; venom also has potent necrotic (tissue-destroying) & myotoxic factors. In northern Mexico, responsible for more human deaths than any other snake & responsible for the most snake-bite casualties annually in North America.
Crotalus basiliscus
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: Crotalus basilisca, C. basiliscus basiliscus, C. terrificus, C. t. basiliscus
Common Names: Mexican west coast rattlesnake, saye, tepocolcoatl, teuhtlacozauhqi, vibora de cascabel
Description
Large, heavy-bodied, terrestrial pitviper, adults usually 1.0-1.5 m long (max. 2.05 m); body pale green, pale grayish-green, or pale brown; juveniles reddish-brown to brown; w/ a series of dark, diamond-shaped dorsal blotches, usually edged w/ white; 24-29 (usually 27) midbody dorsal scale rows. Head pale above, tail gray w/ 5-12 darker bands; belly whitish, yellowish or cream anteriorly (suffused w/ gray), darker posteriorly w/ gray mottling or blotches.
![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/C1BASILI.jpg){kind=link}
![[2]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/normal_Crotalus_basiliscusHdFrontVuTung2006BySMarley.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Most common in forested areas, including thorn forest, at elevations of 600 m in the north to 2,400 m in the south. Limited to Mexico (Sinaloa, Nayarit, Jalisco, Colima, Michoacan).
Activity and Behavior
Mainly terrestrial & nocturnal; may bask in early morning. Most active during rainy periods. Quickly defends itself if threatened, & can strike w/ great speed. Assumes defensive posture w/ the upper one-third of body raised & partly coiled in an "S-shape." Ovoviviparous w/ 24-35 young/ litter reported. Preys mainly on available mammals & lizards (rarely, birds or invertebrates).
Venom Characteristics
Not well known, but mainly hemotoxic; may also have potent tissue-necrotic factor(s). Usually very painful at the bite site w/ rapid progression of local & systemic symptoms if envenomation occurred. Humans are sometimes envenomated by this species, but reported fatalities are rare.
Crotalus catalinensis
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names:
Common Names: Santa Catalina Island rattlesnake, vibora de cascabel, Santa-Catalina-Klapperschlange
Description
Small, fairly slender, semi-arboreal pitviper, adults usually <70 cm long; body usually tan to pale gray-brown w/ few dark speckles, w/ a series of 26-41 medium-brown dorsal blotches outlined in dark brown to black, each edged w/ thin whitish lines, 25 midbody dorsal scale rows, post orbital stripe, bordered above & below by thin white lines; w/ only a one-segmented, dark-colored rattle (lost & replaced at each molt). Belly pale, tail gray w/ 5-6 black dorsal crossbands.
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![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/C1CATALI.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Most common in rocky desert areas w/ brush & cacti. Found only on Santa Catalina Island in the Gulf of California, just off the east coast of Baja California.
Activity and Behavior
Semi-arboreal, & mainly nocturnal, but often active in daytime. Usually not aggressive & will retreat if possible. Has been reported to climb bushes & other vegetation to a height of >1 m. Ovoviviparous w/ litter size not reported (probably <10 young/ litter). Prey mainly on birds, mice & lizards endemic to its habitat (that island).
Venom Characteristics
Not well known; reportedly has a low venom yield. Probably mainly hemotoxic; may also have potent tissue-necrotic factors. May be very painful at the bite site w/ rapid progression of swelling & discoloration of tissue. Bites & envenomations of humans occur infrequently. No well-documented resultant human deaths have been reported.
Crotalus cerastes
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: Aechmophrys cerastes, Caudisona cerastes, Crotalus cerastes cerastes, C. c. cercobombus, C. c. laterorepens [Note: Crotalus scutulatus scutulatus & Crotalus cerastes laterorepens have been reported to have successfully hybridized in captivity.]
Common Names: Sidewinder, awa'ala, chicotera, tl'iish, bicho'hi', vibora cornuda, vibora de cascabel, seitenwinder, Gehornte Klapperschlange
Description
Small, slender, terrestrial pitviper, adults usually 50-80 cm long (max. 82 cm); only Mexican rattlesnake w/ raised, horn-like scales above each eye. Body cream, buff, tan, yellowish-brown, pink, or ash-gray; darker dorsal sub-rhombic or sub-eliptical blotches, supraocular scales produced into a hornlike projection above each eye, belly whitish or yellowish w/ dark markings, mainly laterally, tail has dark rings.
Click for Image [1]
![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/C2CERAST.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Found most commonly in dry, wind-blown sandy areas, desert sand dunes, & rocky hillsides w/ some mesquite or shrubs; up to 1,850 m elevation. Found in the southwestern U.S. (SE California, S Nevada, SW Arizona, SW Utah), & northwestern Mexico (Baja California Norte, NW Sonora).
Activity and Behavior
Mostly terrestrial & nocturnal; often shelters in rodent burrows or ditches. Usually inoffensive, but if threatened, w/ no escape route, usually will coil w/ head & neck thrown back in a horizontal S-shaped loop, hiss, rattle, & if further provoked, strikes quickly & repeatedly. Reported to climb >30 cm up into creosote bushes. Moves rapidly by lateral looping (sidewinding) over fine sand. Ovoviviparous w/ 7-18 young/ litter, mainly eats available lizards, mammals & birds.
Venom Characteristics
Not much known; reportedly has a small venom yield, probably mainly hemotoxic; may also contain potent tissue-necrotic factors. Bites may be very painful at the bite site with rapid progression of swelling & tissue necrosis. Envenomation of humans uncommon, human fatalities not well documented, so far.
Crotalus durissus
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: CURRENT SUBSPECIES: Crotalus durissus cascavella, C. d. collilineatus, C. d. cumanensis, C. d. durissus, C. d. terrificus, C. d. marajoensis, C. d. maricelae, C. d. ruruima, C. d. trigonicus, C. d. unicolor, C. d. vergandis; OTHER NAMES: Crotalus durissus dryinus, C. d. pifanorum, C. d. trigonicus, (PLUS > 10 more older names)
Common Names: South American rattlesnake, Neotropical rattlesnake, cascabel, cascabela, vibora de cascabel, caiguara, apat, boiquira, colebre, cascabel chonono, sak-kah-sak, amaru, palla, ma 'ara, maraca, mboi'-chini, mbaraka, (PLUS more than 40 more variation of local names in various languages & dialects).
Description
Large, stout, rattlesnake, adults usually 1.0-1.6 m long; w/ prominent spinal ridge, most evident on front part of the body. Body color & pattern extremely variable; nearly all specimens w/ 18-32 darker dorsal diamond or rhombic blotches, & 25-33 (usually 27) midbody dorsal scale rows. Head usually w/ dark-brown bar across top & dark postorbital stripe. Belly whitish, yellowish or buff, often w/ pale gray mottling (darker toward tail). Tail gray, often w/ vague darker crossbands.
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![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/C1DURISS.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Mainly in semi-arid regions & drier openings in more humid environments. Not found in rainforest. Most common at <700 m elevation, has been found at elevations up to 1,000 m in Costa Rica, 2,000 m in Mexico and Colombia, 2,500 in Venezuela. This species is the widest-spread geographically, of all rattlesnakes.
Activity and Behavior
Most active during twilight & early morning hours. Will move away from humans if allowed to do so, but assumes a defensive coil & strikes if cornered or startled. In the defensive position, it raises its head & front one-third of the body in a vertical S-shaped loop. Ovovivivparous w/ 4-8 young/ litter reported. Preys mainly on certain lizards, birds & small mammals.
Venom Characteristics
Possibly the most dangerous snake in the region; both hemotoxic & neurotoxic components, varying among the subspecies. Mainly hemotoxic in Mexican & Central American races; venom of C. d. terrificus in South America has myotoxic & neurotoxic factors.
Crotalus durissus terrificus
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: See "C. durissus".
Common Names: See "C. durissus".
Description
This subspecies (1 of 11) is differentiated from others mainly by its relatively dark-brown background body color; & by its body pattern, w/ large dorsal (& smaller lateral) diamond-shaped rhombs, each outlined by light-brown scales. Tips of dorsal & lateral dark rhombs often nearly touch (separated only by a row of light-brown scales). Tail is nearly all black, w/ rattles all light yellow-brown. For details of overall species characters, See Crotalus durissus.
Click for Image [1]
![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/CrotalusDurissusTerrificus1990ByJTashjian%202.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
For general habitat information, See Crotalus durissus. This subspecies is found only in central & southern South America; including portions of northern Argentina, Bolivia, southern Brazil, southeastern Peru, Paraguay, & Uruguay.
Activity and Behavior
Venom Characteristics
See Crotalus durissus. This subspecies apparently often has strong myotoxic & possibly also neurotoxic factors in its venom & MAY require very specific antivenoms, along w/ careful observation & life support for victims.
Crotalus enyo
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: Caudisona enyo, Crotalus confluentus enyo, C. enyo cerralvensis, C. e. enyo, C. e. fulvus, C. oregonus var. enyo
Common Names: Baja California rattlesnake, lower California rattlesnake, vibora de cascabel
Description
Medium-sized, adults usually 70-80 cm long (max. 89 cm). Head relatively small & narrow w/ rather large eyes. Color & pattern variable, usually punctuated w/ gray & blending in well w/ local soil colors. Usually dark-brown, tan, gray-brown, or silvery-brown (paler toward tail), w/ 28-42 reddish to yellow-brown dorsal blotches (black-edged), 23-27 midbody dorsal scale rows. Belly cream or buff, mottled w/ darker gray or brown. Tail w/ 4-8 darker rings on grayish, proximal rattle usually black.
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![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/C1ENYO__.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Found most commonly in desert areas; mainly in rocky terrain sparsely covered w/ brush & cacti, in western Mexico, mainly the Baja California peninsula & nearby islands.
Activity and Behavior
Not much known. Mainly nocturnal, terrestrial, & ovoviviparous (2 observed litters w/ 7 young each). If threatened, & w/ no ready escape route, will coil w/ head & neck thrown back in a horizontal S-shaped loop, hiss, rattle, & if further provoked, will strike. Feed on lizards (mainly juveniles), small mice (mainly adults), & invertebrates (e.g., centipedes).
Venom Characteristics
Not much known; probably mainly hemotoxic but w/ tissue-necrotic factors. May be very painful at the bite site w/ rapid progression of local & systemic symptoms if envenomation occurred. Bites & significant envenomations, of humans occur occasionally, but no well-documented human deaths due to this species.
Crotalus horridus
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: Caudisona horrida, Crotalus atricaudatus, C. boiquira, C. catesbaei, C. cyanurus, C. durissus concolor, C. d. melanurus, C. fasciatus, C. d. mexicana, C. , C. horridus atricaudatus, C. h. horridus, C. zetazomae
Common Names: Timber rattlesnake, banded rattlesnake, canebrake, Seminole rattler, velvet tail, Wald-Kupperschlange
Description
Large, terrestrial, rattlesnake, adults usually 120-145 cm long (max. 189 cm); body tan, grayish brown, yellowish, or pinkish-gray; 15-34 dark brown to black dorsal crossbands or chevrons, each irregularly edged w/ pale scales; has dark postorbital stripes; belly yellowish, gray or pinkish w/ dark flecks or mottling. Juveniles more distinctly patterned, & w/ dark tail bands.
Click for Image [1]
![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/CaneBrakeRatlr06ByChetOrChrisPowell2h.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Usually found in moist forests in low bottomlands, & hilly & mountainous uplands; in dry brushy areas and moderately open mixed beech-birch-maple forests; from sea level to 2,000 m elevation. Found throughout most of the eastern U.S., from southeastern Minnesota & southern Maine southward to eastern Texas & northern Florida; also occurs in southern Ontario, Canada.
Activity and Behavior
Terrestrial, but sometimes climbs onto logs or tree stumps at least 1 m above ground; mainly nocturnal, but often basks in the sun. Adults prey mainly on small mammals & birds. For generalized behavior of a fairly closely-related species, See Crotalus durissus.
Venom Characteristics
Mainly hemotoxic. For more generalized information about a related species, See Crotalus durissus.
Crotalus intermedius
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: Crotalus gloydi gloydi, C. g. lautus, C. intermedius gloydi, C. i. intermedius, C. i. omiltemanus, C. omiltemanus, C. o. omiltemanus, C. triseriatus, C. t. gloydi, C. t. omiltemanus
Common Names: Mexican small-headed rattlesnake, chilladora, vibora de cascabel, vibora sorda
Description
Small, fairly slender terrestrial, rattlesnake, adults usually 40-60 cm long (max. 60 cm); body usually gray, pale blue-gray, or brownish-gray; pattern varies a lot, usually w/ a series of brownish to dark grayish irregular blotches, each narrowly edged w/ black. Often w/ a pair of dark nape blotches & broad dark brown postorbitasl stripe, belly pale w/ various amounts of gray stippling.
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![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/C1INTERM.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Found most commonly in seasonally dry pine-oak forest at 2,000 m to at least 3,000 m. in the central & southern highlands of Mexico (Hidalgo, Puebla, Tlaxcala, Veracruz, Oaxaca, Guerrero).
Activity and Behavior
Mainly terrestrial & diurnal. Active during the day on sunny days of wet season; not often encountered during the dry season. If threatened, & w/ no ready escape route, usually will coil w/ the head & neck thrown back in a horizontal S-shaped loop, may strike quickly if further molested. Ovoviviparous; 1 observed litter of 5 young. Eat mainly available lizards, small mammals (mainly mice), & invertebrates (& very rarely birds).
Venom Characteristics
Not well known. Mainly hemotoxic; may also have potent tissue-necrotic factor(s). Relatively few bites of humans, but may be very painful at the bite site w/ rapid progression of local & systemic symptoms if envenomation occurs. No well-documented human deaths due to bites by this species.
Crotalus lannomi
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names:
Common Names: Autlan rattlesnake, vibora de cascabel
Description
Small, relatively stout rattlesnake, adult(s) apparently about 60 cm long (max. 63.8 cm). Body grayish, w/ a series of irregular brownish dorsal blotches, 27 midbody dorsal scale rows. Belly grayish w/ 2 series of irregular darker spots laterally. Tail long & slender, cream w/ 4 black crossbands, rattles dark brownish. [Known from a single specimen collected in 1966.]
Click for Image [1]
![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/C1LANNOM.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Found in a transitional zone between deciduous forest & pine-oak forest at about 1,000 m elevation, in southwestern Mexico (Jalisco). Known only from type locality.
Activity and Behavior
Very little specific behavioral data. If threatened, & w/ no ready escape route, most rattlesnakes will usually coil w/ their head & neck thrown back in a horizontal S-shaped loop, hiss, rattle, & if further provoked, will strike. Probably mainly terrestrial, nocturnal, & ovoviviparous (litter size not known). Probably preys mainly on available lizards, small mammals, & invertebrates (maybe also birds).
Venom Characteristics
Not much known. Probably mainly hemotoxic; may also have tissue-necrotic factors. One would expcet that bites by this species may be painful at the bite site w/ progression of local & systemic symptoms if envenomation occurs (based on symptoms caused by venoms of closely-related species).
Crotalus lepidus
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: Aploaspis lepida, Caudisona lepida, Crotalus lepidus castaneus, C. l. klauberi, C. l. lepidus, C. l. maculosus, C. l. maculossus, C. l. morulus, C. palmeri, C. semicornutus, C. tigris var. palmeri
Common Names: Rock rattlesnake, banded rock rattlesnake, cha-cha-mu-ri, chamure, vibora, vibora de cascabel, vibora verde de cascabel, Felsen-Klapperschlange
Description
Small to medium-sized, fairly stout-bodied rattlesnake, adults usually 50-70 cm long (max. 83 cm); body colors & patterns extremely variable; body usually greenish, olive, reddish-brown, light brown, gray or pinkish-gray; 21-25 (usually 23) midbody dorsal scale rows, dorsal pattern usually has dark, laterally expanded blotches (often white-edged) that may form complete crossbands. Belly lighter, usually w/ various amounts of darker gray mottling.
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![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/C1LEPIDU.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Variable; including pine-oak forest, scrub & cactus grasslands, & Chihuahuan desert, often associated w/ mountains & rugged broken terrain in the vicinity of rocky outcroppings & slides. In forests, usually found in open or barren rocky areas subject to intense sunlight. Found from southeastern Arizona, southern New Mexico to the Edwards plateau in central Texas, then south to south-central Mexico (Jalisco).
Activity and Behavior
Terrestrial, mostly nocturnal, but can be active during daylight in cooler temperatures. Easily excited & nervous, this snake can quickly assume a defensive posture & will strike if molested or stepped on. Ovoviviparous, 3-9 young/ litter for >5 observed, captured females. Eats a wide variety of available arthropods (insects, like grasshoppers & caterpillars), lizards, & small mammals & birds.
Venom Characteristics
Mainly hemotoxic, also w/ pre-synaptically acting neurotoxins; serious human envenomations & deaths have been reported. Envenomation symptoms may include: intense painful at bite site w/ rapid progression of pain, swelling & discoloration up the bitten limb, nausea, blistering, malaise, dizziness, & sometimes heart or breathing problems.
Crotalus mitchellii
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: Crotalus confluentus mitchelli, C. c. stephensis, C. goldmani, C. mitchelli, C. m. aureus, C. mitchellii, C. m. angelenis, C. m. angelicus, C. m. mitchellii, C. m. muertensis, C. m. pyrrhus, C. m. stephensi, C. oregonus var. mitcheli, C. tigris mitchellii
Common Names: Speckled rattlesnake, vibora blanca, vibora de cascabel
Description
Medium-large, fairly stout rattlesnake, adults usually 90-100 cm long (max. 136 cm), some island populations dwarfed (max. 64 cm) w/ reduced rattle. Body colors & pattern extremely variable, 21-27 (usually 23-27) midbody dorsal scale rows. Body usually brownish to greenish-brown, w/ 23-46 irregular (often interrupted) darker crossbands, rather than blotches, belly lighter w/ darker mottling. Tail w/ 3-9 widely-spaced dark crossbands, each band widest dorsally, basal rattle segment black.
Click for Image [1]
![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/C1MITCHE.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Found most commonly inhabiting rocky hillsides, rock ledges & canyons; in desert scrub, Joshua tree, & pinon-juniper woodlands. It also occurs in low shrub areas, tropical deciduous forest, & pine-oak forest in the northern part of its range. Found up to 2,400 m elevation. Occurs in southwestern U.S. from central California, SW Utah, SW Nevada, & W Arizona to Baja California & adjacent islands.
Activity and Behavior
Mainly terrestrial & mainly nocturnal in midsummer (may be diurnal in spring & fall). Very nervous & quick to strike if disturbed even slightly. Ovoviviparous w/ 1-8 young/ litter for observed captured females. Eat mainly available lizards, small mammals & sometimes birds.
Venom Characteristics
Mainly hemotoxic w/ potent tissue-necrotic factors. However, the venom of one subspecies (C. m. mitchellii) is mainly neurotoxic, lacking significant hemorrhagic & proteolytic activity. Envenomation by this subspecies can cause neurotoxic symptoms. Serious envenomations & deaths of humans have been reported.
Crotalus molossus
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: Caudisona molossa, C. molossus, Crotalus basiliscus oaxacus, C. durissus var. molossus, C. molossus, C. m. estebanensis, C. m. molossus, C. m. nigrescens, C. m. oaxacus, C. ornatus, C. terrificus (in part)
Common Names: Black-tailed rattlesnake, green rattler, palanca,palancacoatl, tecutlacotzauhqui, tepecolcoatl, tleua, vibora,cascabel, vibora de cascabel de cola negra
Description
Large, fairly stout rattlesnake, adults usually 80-100 cm long (max. 133 cm), 23-29 midbody dorsal scale rows, w/ dark postorbital stripe. Body color & pattern extremely variable; dorsal body usually tan, brownish-olive or grayish-brown w/ 24-34 dark-brown diamond-like blotches, yellowish-edged (rarely all black, dorsally). Belly cream to pale yellow w/ lateral dark mottling. Tail usually darker than body background color (often black) w/ NO prominent stripes or bars.
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![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/C1MOLOSS.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Found mainly in pine-oak forest, tropical deciduous forest, grassy hillsides, scrub & cactus areas, & upland Sonoran desert; often associated w/ rocky areas such as cliffs & rock slides along streams. Occurs from sea level to 2,930 m elevation.
Activity and Behavior
Mainly nocturnal, but also active at dusk & dawn. Semi-arboreal, often climbs into low bushes & trees up to height of several meters. Temperament variable. If threatened, & w/ no ready escape route, usually coils w/ head & neck thrown back in a horizontal S-shaped loop, hisses, rattles, & strikes if further molested. Ovoviviparous w/ 3-16 young/ litter for observed, captured females. Mainly eat available lizards (including Gila Monsters), mammals & birds.
Venom Characteristics
Not well known, large venom yield, but no human deaths have been reported, so far. Mainly hemotoxic; may also have potent necrotic (tissue-destroying) factor(s). Can be very painful at bite site w/ swelling & necrosis.
Crotalus oreganus
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: Caudisona lucifer, C. l. cerberus, Crotalus adamanteus var. lucifer, C. confluentus abyssus, C. c. concolor, C. c. decolor, C. c. lutosis, C. c. oregonus, C. c. lucifer, C. hallowelli, C. lucifer, C. oregonus niger, C. viridis abyssus, C. v. caliginis, C. v. cerberus, C. v. concolor, C. v. decolor, C. v. helleri, C. v. lutosis, C. v. oregonus,
Common Names: Western rattlesnake, vibora de cascabel
Description
Medium-sized, fairly stout, terrestrial pitviper, max. adult length usually <0.9 m; the only rattlesnake species on Isla de Cedros. Body color variable, usually gray-brown to reddish-brown, w/ a series of large, dark diamond-shaped rhombs along dorsal midline, usually lighter in center, & edged w/ lighter scales. Smaller dark blotches along sides. Tail light gray to white w/ black crossbands, chin whitish, belly light-gray to pale brown, often w/ darker brownish-gray blotches.
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![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/C1EXSUL_.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Found most commonly in rocky terrain covered w/ desert vegetation, pine-oak forests from near sea level to 3,355 m elevation. Found from southwestern Canada, throughout much of the western half of the U.S. & into northern Mexico.
Activity and Behavior
Mainly terrestrial, mainly nocturnal. If threatened, & w/ no ready escape route, usually will coil w/ head & neck thrown back in a horizontal S-shaped loop, hiss, rattle, & if further provoked, will strike. Ovoviviparous w/ usually <10 young/ litter. Preys on available small mammals, & sometimes birds (young occasionally prey on lizards &/or amphibian in part of its range).
Venom Characteristics
Not well known. Mainly hemotoxic; may also have potent tissue-necrotic factor(s). Bites usually are very painful at the bite site w/ rapid progression of local & systemic symptoms if envenomation occurred. Numerous serious envenomations & deaths of humans due to bites by this species have been reported historically.
Crotalus polystictus
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: Caudisona polysticha, Crotalus jimenezii, C. lugubris, C. l. var. multimaculata, C. triseriatus var. jimenezii
Common Names: Mexican lancehead rattlesnake, chiauhcotl, chiauitl, hocico de puerco, tziripa, vibora de cascabel
Description
Medium-sized, fairly stout terrestrial rattlesnake, adults usually 70-80 cm long (max. 100 cm). Body usually pale (grey, buff, tan, or light brown) w/ 30-47 closely-spaced dark-brown rounded-elongated dorsal blotches (looks "Giraffe-like"). Head unusually slender, 25-29 (usually 27) midbody dorsal scale rows, belly white at front, stippled w/ dark-brown at middle of each ventral scale, darker toward tail. Tail yellowish w/ 4-7 dark brown dorsal crossbands & brownish ventral spots.
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![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/C1POLYST.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Found mainly in broad valleys, plains, & meadows at 1,450-2,600 m elevation. Most common in rocky outcroppings & grassy, mesquite scrub areas. Particularly common in rocky areas or areas w/ many gopher (rodent) burrows, in which the snakes often hide. Historic reports refer to certain probably semi-aquatic populations of this species, which have apparently been extirpated since.
Activity and Behavior
Mainly terrestrial, but occupy rodent burrows, & reportedly swim readily & very well. Mostly nocturnal during the dry season, but can become active in daylight hours during the rainy season w/ the growth of high grasses. Quick to move away when humans approach. Not usually agressive, but will strike quickly if cornered.
Venom Characteristics
Not much known. Probably mainly hemotoxic (& probably w/ tissue-necrotoxic factors). This species' long fangs & large average venom yield make it a potentially dangerous snake; envenomation of humans has resulted in severe symptoms.
Crotalus pricei
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: Crotalus pricei miquihuanus, C. p. pricei, C. triseriatus miquihuanus, C. t. pricei
Common Names: Twin-spotted rattlesnake, mountain sidewinder, chachamuri, vibora de cascabel
Description
Small, moderately stout terrestrial rattlesnake, adults usually 50-60 cm long (max. 66 cm), w/ 21-23 midbody dorsal scale rows & a dark postocular stripe. Body color variable; usually light gray, brownish-gray, or reddish-brown w/ 39-64 paired dark para-vertebral dorsal blotches (looks "twin-spotted"); these sometimes merge forming "bow-tie shaped" marks. These marks may be obscured in melanistic or older specimens. Throat whitish, belly whitish & suffused w/ black toward tail.
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![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/C1PRICEI.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Found most commonly in pine-oak & boreal forest, usually near volcanic rock or limestone outcroppings, at 1,850-3,203(+) m elevation. Occurs from southeastern Arizona into central Mexico.
Activity and Behavior
Mainly terrestrial. Mainly active only by day (diurnal), but below 2,500 m elevation, it may be active at night (nocturnal). Ovoviviparous w/ 4-9 young/ litter observed for captured females. Prey on available lizards, small mammals, ground-nesting birds, & sometimes other snakes.
Venom Characteristics
Not much known. This species has short fangs & a low venom yield & probably poses little health risk to humans. No human fatalities reported as caused by this species, so far. Rattlesnake venoms are mainly hemotoxic; some spp. also have necrotoxic (tissue-destroying) &/ or neurotoxic factors. Envenomations are often painful at the bite site & may have progressive spreading local or systemic swelling, bleeding, nausea, & for some species, sometimes cardiac or respiratory effects.
Crotalus pusillus
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: Crotalus triseriatus, C. t. triseriatus,
Common Names: Tancitaran dusky rattlesnake, vibora de cascabel
Description
Small, moderately stout, terrestrial rattlesnake, adults usually <70 cm long; body usually grayish-brown, occasionally fawn or grayish w/ greenish overtones; dark brown dorsal blotches sometimes are black-bordered & narrowly & irregularly edged w/ white, 23-25 (usually 23) midbody dorsal scale rows, dark-brown postocular stripe, belly pale w/ speckling of dark gray or brown, heavier & darker toward tail.
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![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/C1PUSILL.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Most common in pine-oak forest, usually associated w/ volcanic rock or limestone outcroppings, at 1,500-2,400 m elevation. Limited to west-central Mexico (NE Michoacan, S Jalisco).
Activity and Behavior
Mainly diurnal & terrestrial. If threatened, & w/ no ready escape route, will usually coil w/ head & neck thrown back in a horizontal S-shaped loop, hiss, rattle, & if further provoked, strike. Ovoviviparous w/ 3-5 young/ litter observed for captured females. Reported to prey on available lizards, small mammals (including a bat, Eptesicus fuscus), & arthropods.
Venom Characteristics
Venom reportedly has low toxicity & is mainly hemotoxic, but may contain some tissue-necrotic factors. Bites may be painful at the bite site w/ some local &/or systemic symptoms if maximum envenomation occurred. No well-documented human fatalities from bites of this species, so far.
Crotalus ravus
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: Caudisona rava, Crotalophorus ravus, Crotalus miliarius ravus, Sistrurus ravus, S. r. brunneus, S. r. exiguus, S. r. lutescens, S. r. ravus, S. r. sinaloensis
Common Names: Mexican pygmy rattlesnake, colcoatl, cascabel enana, vibora de cascabel, viborita de cascabel
Description
Small, fairly stout, terrestrial rattlesnake, adults usually 40-65 cm long (max. 70+ cm); body colors & patterns extremely variable; usually pale grayish-brown, dark brown, bluish-gray, or pale rust; w/ 22-44 reddish-brown to dark-brown dorsal blotches, often, each is pale-centered, 21-25 midbody dorsal scale rows, usually no obvious postorbital stripe, belly pale w/ lots of darker mottling, 2-8 dark tail bands.
Habitat
Found in pine-oak forest, cloud forest, boreal forest, high tropical scrub, & upper tropical deciduous forest, in temperate montane regions to high elevations across the Mexican plateau; in central-southern Mexico, at 1,490-3,000 m elevation.
Activity and Behavior
Mainly terrestrial, & usually diurnal, but have been observed to be active at night. Prey mainly on available small mammals, sometimes birds (rarely lizards). Ovoviviparous w/ 3-7 young/ litter reported.
Venom Characteristics
Not well known, but mainly hemotoxic, possibly containing some tissue-necrotic factors. Bites may be painful, w/ local & progressive swelling & necrosis. No human fatalities documented due to bites by this species, so far.
Crotalus ruber
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: Caudisona atrox sonoraensis, Crotalus adamanteus atrox, C. a. ruber, C. atrox ruber, C. a. elegans, C. a. lucasensis, C. exsul, C. e. exsul, C. e. lorenzoensis, C. e. lucasensis, C. lucasensis, C. ruber elegans, C. r. lorenzoensis, C. r. lucasensis, C. r. monserratensis, C. r. ruber
Common Names: Red diamond rattlesnake, monserratensis, red rattlesnake, Cedros Island diamondback rattlesnake, vibora de cascabel, Rote Diamant-Klapperschlange
Description
Medium to large rattlesnake, adults usually 100-150 cm long (max. 162 cm) 25-33 (usually 27 or 29) midbody dorsal scale rows. Body color & patterns highly variable (overall dull ochre to vividly marked w/ brown, black, & white scales), but the tail is usually ash-gray w/ 3-5 black alternating w/ white bands; white bands usually slightly narrower dorsally.
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![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/C1RUBER_.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Mainly found in cool coastal areas, pine-oak & tropical deciduous forest, & desert; most often found in brushy grassland, rocky areas w/ heavy brush, or cactus-covered foothills. Found up to 1,500 m elevation. Occurs in southwestern California & Baja California.
Activity and Behavior
Mainly nocturnal & terrestrial (may be considered semi-fossorial, because it often occupies its prey rodents' burrows for extended periods). Ovoviviparous w/ usually <10 young/ litter. Prey mainly on available lizards & burrowing small mammals.
Venom Characteristics
This species has long fangs & a large yield of potent venom; has caused human fatalities. Mainly hemotoxic but may also have potent tissue-necrotic factors. Bite effects may be very painful at the bite site & may include progressive swelling & necrosis.
Crotalus scutulatus
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: Caudisona scutulata, Crotalus adamanteus scutulatus, C. confluentus kellyi, C. molossus (in part), C. salvini, C. scutulatus salvini, C. s. scutulatus,
Common Names: Mohave rattlesnake, Mohave green rattlesnake, chiauhcoatl, vibora de cascabel, Mojave-Klapperachlange
Description
Medium-sized to large, fairly stout-bodied terrestrial rattlesnake, adults usually 90-100 cm long (max. 137 cm), w/ dark postocular stripe & 21-29 (25) midbody dorsal scale rows. Body colors & pattern variable; usually olive-gray, greenish brown, or yellowish-gray w/ 27-44 dark diamond-like dorsal blotches, each rimmed by a row of pale scales. Belly white to yellowish. Tail w/ 2-8 dark rings alternating w/ ash-gray. Snakes from more southern areas are usually much paler overall.
![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/C1SCUTUL.jpg){kind=link}
![[2]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/normal_Crotalus_scutulatus_scutulatus_002HdNTail2005BySMarley.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Found mainly in semi-arid grassland, brushy flats, open scrubland, & occasionally in forests; mainly in flat terrain, such as valley floors or open plains, up to 2,500+ m elevation. More common & wider-spread in the Chihuahuan Desert than in the Mojave Desert. Found in southern California, southern Nevada, Arizona, southern New Mexico, west Texas, southward & eastward to southeastern Mexico.
Activity and Behavior
Activity is temperature-dependent; mainly nocturnal at lower elevations & during warmer months, & diurnal at higher elevations & during cooler months. Aggressively defends itself if disturbed. Ovoviviparous w/ 2-17 young/ litter observed for captured females. Prey mainly on available lizards, rodents, arthropods (specifically, centipedes) & amphibians.
Venom Characteristics
Venom is highly potent & mainly hemotoxic, but also has pre-synaptic neurotoxins, & may also have tissue-necrotic factors. Bites may be very painful at the bite site & may produce progressive swelling & necrosis. Serious human envenomations and some fatalities have been reported.
Crotalus simus
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: Crotalus durissus (in part), C. d. culminatus, C. d. durissus, C. d. neoleonensis, C. d. tzabcan, C. s. culminatus, C. s. tzabcan, C. s. simus, C. terrificus (in part), C. t. copeanus
Common Names: Middle American rattlesnake, cascabel, vibora de cascabel, cascabela, chil-chil, kwechwah, quiakxop, sochaj, ahau-can, ah tsab ti'kkan, sakk ahaw kan, shunu, teotlacozauhqui, tepocolcoatl, teuhtlacozauhqui
Description
Medium-to-large, stout rattlesnake, adults usually 130-160 cm long (max. about 180 cm); body gray-brown, reddish-brown, yellowish-gray, yellowish-olive, straw, or orange; w/ 18-35 rhombic or diamond-shaped dorsal blotches, 27-33 midbody dorsal scale rows, belly whitish, yellowish or buff w/ gray blotches darker posteriorly, dark postocular stripe, conspicuous spinal ridge of strongly-keeled scales, tail w/ dark crossbands.
Habitat
Found mainly in semi-arid regions, w/ dry to very dry tropical forest, arid scrub forest, & thorn woodlands, but also sometimes in mesic forests in limestone outcrop areas, & along breaks in cloud forests. Ranges from central Mexico to western Costa Rica. Usually below 1,000 m but sometimes found at 1,500-2,200 m elevation. Also occurs on the Atlantic coast of Columbia; but no verified specimens from Panama.
Activity and Behavior
Not well documented. Mainly diurnal, but often active at night, & mainly terrestrial. Ovoviviparous w/ 21 young/ litter reported for a captured female. Prey on available small mammals (sometimes also lizards &/or other snakes).
Venom Characteristics
Mainly hemotoxic, but may have some tissue-necrotic factor(s). Bites often locally painful, may progress to swelling & necrosis if severaly envenomated.
Crotalus spp.
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: Aploaspis, Aechmophrys, Caudisona, Crotalinus, Crotalophorus, Crotalurus, Haploaspis, Paracrotalus, Urocrotalon, Uropsophus [Note: This genus includes at least 30 currently named spp., & is most diverse on the Mexican plateau & surrounding mountains.]
Common Names: Rattlesnakes, pitvipers ("new world"), vipers
Description
Small to large, mainly terrestrial, fairly stout-bodied pitvipers, w/ multiple hollow "scales" (at least 1) at the tail tip, usually retained through molting & "rattle" if tail is shaken. Body color may be brown, gray, green, red, pink or yellow, usually w/ dorsal pattern of darker rhombs, blotches or spots (varies by spp.), & belly lighter w/ darker spots or blotches, tail usually w/ multiple alternate dark & light rings (blend well w/ usual surroundings), w/ 2 folding, upper front fangs.
Habitat
Found in a wide range of habitats (varies by spp.), but most are found in brushy edges of open areas of forests or margins of dry, or seasonally dry (often desert), & often rocky areas. Found from below sea level to 4,500+ m elevation (varies w/ spp., see individual spp. listed).
Activity and Behavior
Most spp. mainly terrestrial & mainly nocturnal, but varies w/ physical conditions of typical habitat (esp. temperatures), & sometimes w/ season of the year. Most spp. wait in typical sites to ambush prey (usually small mammals, lizards etc.; & varies by spp.). All are ovoviviparous, litter numbers vary w/ spp. & female's body size.
Venom Characteristics
Most spp. have mainly hemotoxic venom, often w/ additional tissue-necrotic factors (& sometimes neurotoxic or cardiotoxic factors). Many species can & do cause serious human envenomations & deaths each year (varies by individual spp.).
Crotalus stejnegeri
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: Crotalus tigris
Common Names: Long-tailed rattlesnake, vibora de cascabel
Description
Relatively small, fairly slender rattlesnake, adults usually <60 cm long (max. 72 cm); disproportionally long, slender tail & a tiny rattle. Usually pale gray brown to light brown, w/ 32-43 dorsal dark blotches usually highly irregular in shape & not diamond-shaped, 23-29 midbody dorsal scale rows, belly white w/ irregular roundish, gray or brown blotches along the sides, tongue black w/ white tip.
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![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/C1STEINE.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Found most commonly in ecotone between tropical deciduous & pine-oak forest at 500-1,200 m elevation, limited to western Mexico (Sierra Madre Occidental of western Durango, southern Sinaloa).
Activity and Behavior
Not well known. Mainly terrestrial & nocturnal; sometimes found moving about at dusk or dawn. If threatened, & w/ no ready escape route, this species will usually coil w/ its head & neck thrown back in a horizontal S-shaped loop, hiss, rattle, & if further provoked, will strike. Ovoviviparous (litter size not reported, but probably <10 young/ litter). Preys mainly on locally available lizards, small mammals & arthropods.
Venom Characteristics
Not much known. Mainly hemotoxic; may also have potent tissue-necrotic factors. May be very painful at a bite site w/ rapid progression of local & systemic symptoms if significant envenomation occurred. Human fatalities have been reported (rarely), but not well documented, so far.
Crotalus tigris
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: Crotalus tigris tigris
Common Names: Tiger rattlesnake, vibora de cascabel, Tiger-Klapperschlange
Description
Medium-sized, fairly stout-bodied rattlesnake, adults usually 70-80 cm long (max. 88.5 cm), w/ ill-defined postorbital stripe & 21-27 (usually 23) midbody dorsal scale rows. Body usually gray, lavendar, blue-gray, pink or buff; shading to pink, pale orange or cream on sides; w/ 35-52 darker (usually brownish) crossbars that are broadest dorsally, narrowing laterally. Belly straw-colored, yellow or pink & mottled w/ gray or brown. Tail w/ 4-10 indistinct dark brown crossbands.
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![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/C1TIGRIS.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Found mainly in Sonoran desert & low-shrub grassland from near sea level to 1,465+ m elevation; found almost exclusively in rugged, rocky country. Limited to southern Arizona, southwestern New Mexico, & northwestern Sonora, Mexico.
Activity and Behavior
Mainly terrestrial & diurnal, but active any time of day. Avoids prolonged exposure to direct sunlight during hot periods; especially active after summer rains. If threatened, & w/ no ready escape route, this species will usually coil w/ its head & neck thrown back in a horizontal "S-shaped" loop, & will strike if further provoked. Ovoviviparous w/ 4-6 young/ litter observed for captured females. Mainly preys on available lizards & small mammals.
Venom Characteristics
Mainly hemotoxic w/ potent tissue-necrotic factors; venom also has pre-synaptic neurotoxins. However, average venom yield is low, & bites usually are not life-threatening for humans. Bites usually are painful locally, & there may be progressive swelling & necrosis, if significant envenomation occurred.
Crotalus tortugensis
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: Crotalus atrox tortugensis
Common Names: Tortuga Island diamond rattlesnake, vibora de cascabel
Description
Medium-sized, fairly stout rattlesnake, adults usually 80-90 cm long (max. 105 cm), w/ dark postorbital stripe bordered below by a pale stripe, & 25-27 midbody dorsal scale rows. Body gray to gray-brown (may have purplish or pink tinge), w/ 32-41 dorsal dark brownish diamond-like blotches. Belly paler w/ irregular gray-brown speckling, heavy toward tail. Tail w/ 3-7 black rings (alternating w/ ash-white). Overall appearance very similar to that of C. atrox, but w/ proportionally smaller head.
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![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/C1TORTUG.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Found mainly in desert conditions; w/ rocky, barren terrain w/ sparse brush & cacti. Limited to the Isla Tortuga off the east coast of Baja California Sur in the Gulf of California, Mexico. Also is the only rattlesnake reported from that island.
Activity and Behavior
Mainly terrestrial & mainly diurnal, but also active at night. Reportedly quick to assume a defensive posture & rattle, if threatened. If there is no ready escape route, it will usually coil w/ head & neck thrown back in a horizontal S-shaped loop, hiss, rattle, & if further provoked, will strike. Ovoviviparous (litter size not reported, but probably <10 young/ litter). Preys mainly on available lizards, small mammals, (rarely, ground-nesting birds &/or arthropods).
Venom Characteristics
Not much known. Mainly hemotoxic, but may also have tissue-necrotic factors. Bites of humans very rare, no serious envenomations or fatalities reported as caused by bites of this species. Effects of envenomation would probably be similar to those caused by other rattlesnakes, if envenomation occurred. For generalized envenomation effects of a closely-related species, See Crotalus atrox.
Crotalus totonacus
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: Crotalus basiliscus totonacus, C. durissus neoleonensis, C. d. totonacus
Common Names: Totonacan rattlesnake, vibora de cascabel
Description
Medium to large-sized, stout rattlesnake, adults usually 140-150 cm long (max. 167+ cm). Body usually yellowish-brown, straw-yellow, olive-brown or pale gray-brown; patterned by black or dark-brown dorsal blotches, sub-hexagonal to diamond shaped, & bordered by white, cream or yellow lines; 25 midbody dorsal scale rows, vertebral row of dorsal scales strongly keeled, belly cream or yellow w/ darker clumps of pigment laterally.
Habitat
Found mainly in lowland tropical thorn forest & tropical deciduous forest, in some areas ranging up into pine-oak forest & lower cloud forest, in northeastern Mexico (Neuva Leon, Tamaulipas, Veracruz, San Luis Potosi, Queretaro), from sea level up to 1,680 m elevation.
Activity and Behavior
Mainly terrestrial & mainly nocturnal, but sometimes active in daytime (depending on temperatures & other local conditions). Will avoid humans if possible, but will defend itself if cornered or molested. Ovoviviparous, but litter size not reported. Preys mainly on available small mammals (rats & squirrels), & very rarely, on lizards or arthropods.
Venom Characteristics
Not much known. Mainly hemotoxic, possibly w/ some tissue-necrotic factors. Very few bites (& no fatalities, so far) of humans reported. For details about envenomation effects of a closely-related species, See Crotalus atrox.
Crotalus transversus
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: Crotalus triseriatus anahuacus
Common Names: Cross-banded mountain rattlesnake, vibora de cascabel
Description
Small, fairly stout rattlesnake, adults usually only 30-40 cm long (max. 46 cm) w/ 21 midbody dorsal scale rows. Body usually either brownish-gray or orangish; w/ 37-43 narrow, dark-brown to black transverse dorsal bars that do not extend very far laterally (5-9 more such bars on tail). Belly pale w/ scattered dark mottling (sometimes almost all black). Basal rattle segment usually the same color as body background.
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![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/C1TRANSV.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Found mainly on steep volcanic slopes dominated by open pine & bunchgrass; at 3,000-3,710 m elevation. Limited to central southern Mexico south of Mexico City (Distrito Federal & northwestern Morelos).
Activity and Behavior
Mainly terrestrial & mainly diurnal; temperament variable. If threatened, & w/ no ready escape route, will usually coil w/ head & neck thrown back in a horizontal S-shaped loop, hiss, rattle, & if further provoked, will strike. Ovoviviparous w/ 4-6 young/ litter reported for captured females. Preys mainly on available lizards (predominantly just certain species) & sometimes small mammals.
Venom Characteristics
Not much known. Most rattlesnake venoms are mainly hemotoxic; but may also have potent tissue-necrotic factors. Bites may be very painful at the bite site w/ rapid progression of local & systemic swelling & necrotic symptoms if envenomation occurred.
Crotalus triseriatus
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: Caudisona lugubris, C. triseriata, Crotalus lugubris, C. pallidus, C. polystictus (in part), C. triseriatus anahuacus, C. t. aquilus, C. t. armstrongi, C. t. quadrangularis, C. t. triseriatus, Uropsophus triseriatus
Common Names: Mexican dusky rattlesnake, central plateau dusky rattlesnake, Queretaran dusky rattlesnake, chiauhcotl, chiauitl, colcoatl, chilladora, hocico de puerco, vibora de cascabel
Description
Small, fairly stout rattlesnake, adults usually 50-60 cm long (max. 68 cm), postorbital dark stripe, 21-25 (usually 23) midbody dorsal scale rows. Body colors extremely variable, from pale gray to reddish-brown; dorsal body pattern usually w/ 30-57 irregular dark-brown mid-dorsal blotches & a row of similar smaller dark blotches along each side. Markings often obscured in darker or older individuals.
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![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/C1TRISER.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Found most commonly in pine-oak forest, boreal forest, & mesquite grassland at 1,500-4,300 m elevation, limited to central & western highlands of the trans-volcanic range in southern Mexico. Highest ranging (in elevation) rattlesnake in the Americas.
Activity and Behavior
Mainly terrestrial & diurnal, may be active at night at elevations below 2,500 m. Temperament unclear. If threatened, & w/ no ready escape route, it will often coil w/ its head & neck thrown back in a horizontal S-shaped loop, hiss, rattle, & if further molested, will strike. Ovoviviparous w/ 4-6 young/ litter observed for captured females. Preys mainly on available lizards, small mammals, amphibians, & invertebrates.
Venom Characteristics
Reportedly has a small average yield of venom w/ low toxicity. Mainly hemotoxic; may also have tissue-necrotic factors. Bites may be very painful at the bite site w/ rapid progression of local & systemic swelling & necrosis if significant envenonation occurred.
Crotalus viridis
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: Caudisona confluenta, C. c. confluenta, C. c. lecontei, Crotalus confluentus, C. c. confluentus, C. c. lecontei. C. c. lucifer, C. c. nuntius, C. c. pulverulentus, C. oregonus cerberus (in part), C. concolor (in part), C. viridis caliginus, C. v. lutosis (in part), C. v. nuntius, C. v. viridis
Common Names: Prairie rattlesnake, vibora de cascabel
Description
Small to medium-sized, fairly stout-bodied rattlesnake, adults on mainland usually 100-130 cm long (max. 151 cm); island populations usually <70 cm long; Head w/ 2 thin white lateral lines, upper one extends through the eye, or from the eye rearward. Body variable: pale tan, dark brown, pinkish or greenish; w/ 33-57 dark brown mid-dorsal blotches (lighter in center) & smaller lateral blotches . Belly nearly all whitish to pale gray. Closely-related to, & looks very much like, C. oreganus.
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![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/C1VIRIDI.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Found in widely variable habitats, mainly in mesquite & brush covered grasslands & deserts; also pine-oak forest. Often found in brush-covered rocky canyons, rocky crevices, & sandy fields along the coast. May shelter in vegetation clumps & animal burrows. Often found near human habitations. Found up to 2,500 m elevation. Found in southern Canada, over much of the Great Plains of the U.S. & into northern Mexico.
Activity and Behavior
Mainly terrestrial & nocturnal, may be active during the day in cool weather or at higher elevations. If threatened, & w/ no ready escape route, will usually coil w/ head & neck thrown back in S-shaped loop, & may strike if further molested. Ovoviviparous w/ 3-21 young/ litter reported for captured females. Prey mainly on available toads, lizards, & small mammals (may sometimes be cannibalistic).
Venom Characteristics
Mainly hemotoxic w/ potent necrotic (tissue destroying) factors; reportedly also has pre-synaptically acting neurotoxins. Envenomation symptoms usually include intense pain at the bite site w/ rapid progression of local swelling, discoloration & tissue necrosis; may also cause nausea, disorientation & cardiac or respiratory problems. Human deaths have been reportedly caused by envenomation by this species.
Crotalus willardi
Identification
Family: Viperidae
Scientific Names: Crotalus willardi amabilis, C. w. meridionalis, C. w. obscurus, C. w. silus, C. w. willardi
Common Names: Ridge-nosed rattlesnake, Arizona ridge-nosed rattlesnake, New Mexico ridge-nosed rattlesnake, Willard's rattlesnake, vibora de cascabel, Willard-Klaperschlange
Description
Small, fairly stout-bodied rattlesnake, adults usually 45-55 cm long (max. 67 cm). Snout w/ a distinct ridge; head usually dark above w/ 2 prominent lateral white lines, the upper passing below the eye, the lower at the jawline. Colors highly variable; reddish-brown, rust, yellow-brown, gray-brown or gray; w/ 18-45 dark brown dorsal blotches, belly pinkish, reddish or orangish w/ irregular black markings (darker toward tail), basal rattle segment dark brown; w/ 25-29 midbody dorsal scale rows.
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![[1]](/sites/default/files/Living_Hazards/C1WILLAR.jpg){kind=link}
Habitat
Found mainly in pine-oak woodlands, oak scrub, & open grassy meadows within pine-oak forest; most abundant in humid canyon bottoms & less exposed slopes. Found at 1,460-2,750 m elevation. Limited to southeastern Arizona, southwestern New Mexico & the Sierra Madre Occidental range in northwestern Mexico.
Activity and Behavior
Mainly terrestrial & diurnal. Reportedly has a mild temperament, but if molested, & w/ no ready escape route, will usually coil w/ head & neck thrown back in a horizontal S-shaped loop, hiss, rattle, & if further provoked, strike. Ovoviviparous w/ 2-9 (usually 4-6) young/ litter observed for captured females. Prey mainly on available lizards (esp. as juveniles) & small mammals (esp. as adults).
Venom Characteristics
Not much known. Venom apparently only mildly toxic, mainly hemotoxic, but may also have necrotic factors. Bites may be locally painful w/ local or progressive swelling & some necrosis if significant envenonation occurred. No well documented cases of serious human envenomation or fatalities due to bites by this species, so far.