Venomous Animals - E

Echis carinatus
Echis carinatus multisquamatus
Echis carinatus sochureki
Echis coloratus
Echis leucogaster
Echis ocellatus
Echis omanensis
Echis pyramidum
Elapsoidea guentheri
Elapsoidea laticincta
Elapsoidea loveridgei
Elapsoidea nigra
Elapsoidea semiannulata
Elapsoidea spp.
Elapsoidea sundevallii
Enhydrina schistosa
Eristocophis macmahoni

Echis carinatus

Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Echis carinata, Echis carinatus, E. c. astolae, E. c. astoles, E. c. carinatus, E. c. multisquamatus, E. c. sochureki, E. multisquamatus, E. sochureki, Pseudoboa carinata

Common Names: Saw-scaled viper, carpet viper, African carpet viper, Egyptian saw-scaled viper, Indian saw-scaled viper, phoorsa, Sandrassselotter, Sochurek's saw-scaled viper, Central Asian saw-scaled viper

Description

Small, rather stout, flat, sand viper, adults avg. 20-30 cm long (max. 80 cm); body grayish, greenish, or yellowish brown; belly white speckled w/ brown or black. Moveable front fangs. Series of middorsal white cross-bars edged w/ black & whitish zigzag along each side. Distinctive cruciform white mark on top of head (differs for each recognized subspecies).

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Habitat

Found mainly in open, dry or semi-desert areas, dry savannahs, or even forest edges. Found under small thorny plants, leaf litter, rocks, & in dry scrub jungle. Mainly found in semi-arid regions of southern Asia, India, & Astola Island off the Pakistan coast. Despite some of its common names, it does not occur in Africa.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal in hot weather; often diurnal in cool weather. Mainly terrestrial (semi-fossorial; buries itself in sand) but climbs up to 2 m into bushes. When alarmed, throws itself into double coil like a figure-8 & rubs sides of body together, producing violent rustling sounds. Very nervous; quick to strike at slightest provocation. Reportedly oviparous w/ usually 4-20 eggs/ clutch. Main preys on lizards & small mammals.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly hemotoxic. Fangs rather large compared to size of snake. Common cause of snake bites in its range. Local symptoms generally include pain, swelling, & enlarged tender lymph glands. After 10-12 hours, some victims begin to bleed from gums & later develop deep-organ or cerebral bleeding (sometimes fatal).

Echis carinatus multisquamatus

Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Echis multisquamatus

Common Names: Central Asian saw-scaled viper

Description

Small, fairly stout, flat, sand viper, adults usually 40-60 cm long (max. 85 cm). Body usually grayish, greenish, or yellowish-brown; belly white, speckled w/ brown or black. Well-defined pale, continuous, undulating line along flanks. Distinctive cruciform white marking on top of head.

Habitat

Mainly found in open scrubby, dry, sandy, & rocky areas.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal in hot weather; sometimes diurnal in cool weather. When alarmed, throws itself into double coil somewhat like a "figure 8" & rubs sides of body together, making a violent rustling sound. Very nervous; quick to strike at slightest provocation. Probably oviparous, & probably preys on available small animals.

Venom Characteristics

Little known about venom. Characteristics likely similar to other Echis spp. Probably mainly hemotoxic. Fangs relatively large compared to size of snake. Local symptoms include pain, swelling, & enlarged tender lymph glands. Serious envenomation can cause bleeding in places distant from bite site or in deep organs or the brain. Human fatalities have been recorded.

Echis carinatus sochureki

Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Echis carinata (in part), Echis carinatus (in part), Echis sochureki

Common Names: Sochurek's saw-scaled viper, Sochurek's (or Sind) sand viper, carpet viper, Indian saw-scaled viper, phoorsa, Asian saw-scaled viper, Sandrasselotter

Description

Small to medium-sized stout, flat sand viper, adults usually 40-75 cm long (max 85+ cm), w/ a pair of upper front fangs, rather large for its body size. Body grayish, yellowish-brown (rarely greenish) above, belly white, may be speckled w/ brown or black. Has well-defined continuous, pale, undulating line along flanks & dictinctive cruciform white marking on top of head.

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Habitat

Found mainly in dry or semi-desert opensites, usually on sandy & rocky soils. Often found in margins of oases or edges of dry forests or scruby thorny bushes. Limited to semi-arid & arid regions of southern Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan & western India.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial (may climb >1 m up into bushes) & nocturnal (often diurnal in cool weather or season). If alarmed, throws its body into double coil (figure-8) & rubs sides together, making violent rasping or rustling sound. Nervous, quick to strike w/ slight provocation. Regional medical experts report it is often very aggressive. Oviparous w/ <20 eggs/ clutch. Mainly eats available lizards & small mammals.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly hemotoxic w/ possible cytotoxic factors. Very often envenomates humans within its range, & causes many human deaths annually. No effective specific antivenom against it currently available. Symptoms 10-12 hrs. after bite may include: local pain at bite site, lymph glands swollen & tender, bleeding from gums, deep organs, & sometimes in the brain (this is often fatal).

Echis coloratus

Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Echis colorata, Echis coloratus coloratus, E. c. terraesanctae, E. froenatus

Common Names: Burton’s carpet viper, Palestine saw-scaled viper, adder, Egyptian viper, saw-scaled viper, ep'eh (in Hebrew), Arabische Sandrasselotter

Description

Small, moderately stout, pale sand viper, adults usually 30-60 cm long (max. 80 cm); body usually yellowish-gray, light brownish-gray, or pale blue- gray, w/ gray to tan, bright reddish or pinkish, dark-edged dorsal blotches, 31-37 midbody dorsal scale rows, movable front fangs, keeled scales; belly white, grayish white or pale pinkish-white w/ brown or black speckles. Often w/ dark spots on flanks, dark postorbital stripe.

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Habitat

Can exist in extreme desert conditions, often in dry rocky wadis, but prefers firm, rocky ground & usually avoids loose sand. Found from sea level up to 2,500 m elevation. Several widely disjunct populations, but mainly limited to eastern Egypt, Sinai peninsula, Israel, Jordan & southeastern Arabian peninsula, possibly also in southwestern Qatar.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial, nocturnal in hot weather; may be active at dusk, may be diurnal in cool weather. Often most active after rains or on humid nights. Often basks during early morning in bushes >2 m above ground. Basks in the open when cooler. When alarmed, throws body into C-shaped coils & rubs scales together making violent rustling sounds. Less irritable than E. carinatus, but aggressively defends itself if molested. Main prey are lizards & small mammals.

Venom Characteristics

Important cause of snakebite accidents & fatalities throughout its range; venom highly toxic to man. Venom primarily hemotoxic; internal & external hemorrhages common. Envenomation usually causes pain & swelling at bite site.

Echis leucogaster

Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Echis arenicola, E. a. leucogaster, Echis carinatus leucogaster, Echis jogeri

Common Names: White-bellied carpet viper, Roman's saw-scaled viper

Description

Small, fairly stout, sand viper, adults usually 30-70 cm long (max. 87 cm); color variable, usually brown, gray, or reddish; may have a dorsal series of oblique pale crossbars, interspersed w/ dark spaces, keeled scales, moveable front fangs, 27-33 midbody dorsal scale rows. Usually has row of triangular or circular markings along flanks. Belly pale cream, white, or ivory w/ no markings.

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Habitat

Found mainly in arid savanna, semi-desert, & well-vegetated wadis. Not in true desert, but occurs on desert’s edge, oases, & elevated vegetated areas within deserts. Mainly limited to arid areas of western Africa.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal & terrestrial, but climbs into low bushes to avoid hot or wet surfaces. Can move quickly; most active during first few hours of darkness. Hides in holes, under logs, rocks, & brush piles during daytime. When disturbed, forms C-shaped coils & rubs scales together vigorously, making a loud rustling sound. Mainly eats available lizards & small mamals, but also scorpions & centipedes. Oviparous, clutch size not reported.

Venom Characteristics

Not well known, but probably potent & mainly hemotoxic. Symptomatology likely similar to that of other African carpet vipers including local swelling, incoagulable blood, systemic bleeding, & possibly death.

Echis ocellatus

Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Echis carinatus ocellatus, E. c. pyramidum

Common Names: West African carpet viper

Description

Small, stout-bodied carpet viper, adults usually 30-50 cm long (max. 65 cm). Body usually brown or gray or shades in between, w/ heavily-keeled scales in 27-34 midbody dorsal rows. Usually one of 2 different conspicuous dorsal patterns:a series of dark irregular crossbars on lighter background or a series of pale saddles w/ darker interspaces, belly lighter.

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Habitat

Mainly found in Savanna, well-wooded areas, & edges of forests. Likmited to western Africa.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial, occasionally climbs into low bushes to avoid hot or wet surfaces. Moves rather quickly. Mainly nocturnal; most active during first few hours of darkness. Hides in holes, under logs, rocks, & brush piles during daytime. Not aggressive unless disturbed. Oviparous w/ usually 6-20 eggs/ clutch. Eats varied prey, including available small mammals, birds, arthropods, lizards, amphibians, & other snakes.

Venom Characteristics

Important cause of snakebite accidents & fatalities almost everywhere it is found; venom highly toxic to man. Venom primarily hemotoxic; internal & external hemorrhages common. Envenomation usually causes pain & swelling at bite site.

Echis omanensis

Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Echis carinatus pyrimidum (in part), Echis colorata, E. coloratus, E. froenatus

Common Names: Oman saw-scaled viper, Oman-Sanrasselotter

Description

For description of the most closely-related species to this one, See Echis coloratus. Several scalation differences separate this from that species,& from other closely-related species, but these characters are not obvious without very close examination of carefully-restrained or preserved specimens.

Habitat

Found mainly in habitats which are very similar to those where E. carinatus in most common. Limited to eastern Oman & the United Arab Emirates

Activity and Behavior

Not much known. Probably mainly terrestrial, & mainly nocturnal. Probably oviparous (clutch size not reported), & probably preys on a variety of available small animals (mammals, lizards, birds, arthropods, etc.). For details about behavior of a closely related species, See Echis coloratus.

Venom Characteristics

Not much known, but probably mainly hemotoxic & causing symptoms similar to those caused by venoms of other, related members of this genus. For details about envenomation effects caused by one such closely-related species, See Echis coloratus.

Echis pyramidum

Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Echis carinatus aliaborri, Echis khosatskii, E. megalocephalus, E. c. pyramidum, Echis pyramidum aliaborri, E. p. leakeyi, E. p. lucidus, E. p. pyramidum, Echis varia, E. varius borkini, E. v. darevskii, Scytale pyrimidum

Common Names: Egyptian carpet viper, Cherlin's saw-scaled viper, red carpet viper

Description

Small, rather stout sand viper, adults usually 30-60 cm long (max. 85 cm); body color variable, usually yellowish, brown, gray, or reddish (in Kenya); may have series of oblique pale crossbars, interspersed w/ dark spaces, along back, 25-33 midbody dorsal scale rows, moveable front fangs, keeled scales. Usually has lateral rows of triangular or circular dark markings w/ white edges. Belly pale usually w/ brown or reddish spots.

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Habitat

Mainly found near oases, semi-desert, dry savanna, & rocky areas. Not often found in extensive areas of soft sand or in true desert. Widely distributed, sometimes disjunct populations, over northern Africa & the Arabian peninsula, from sea level up to 1,500 m elevation.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial, but sometimes climbs into low bushes to avoid hot or wet surfaces. Moves relatively quickly. Mainly nocturnal, oviparous (usually 4-20 eggs/ clutch). Hides in holes, under logs, rocks, & brush piles during daytime; may partially bury itself in sand or coil up in or around grass tufts. Preys on whatever is available, including: lizards, small mammals, invertebtrates, birds, & sometimes other snakes.

Venom Characteristics

Not well known. Probably hemotoxic. No known antivenom currently produced. Bites & significant envenomations of humans are fairly frequent throughout its range, but human fatalities are apparently relatively rare. For generalized symptoms of envenomation, See Echis carinatus.

Elapsoidea guentheri

Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Elapechis guntheri, E. hessii, Elapsoidea decosteri scalaris, E. guentheri, E. guntherii, E. hessei, E. loveridgei scalaris, E. sundevallii decosteri, E. s. guntherii

Common Names: Gunther's (African) garter snake

Description

Small glossy, moderately stout snake, cylindrical body, fairly short tail, smooth scales in 13 parallel midbody dorsal rows, adults usually 30-50 cm long (max. 62 cm); head short, bullet-shaped, eyes set well forward, w/ round pupils; body black w/ 18-24 white to light gray-white crossbands which fade & darken w/ age.

Habitat

Found mainly in woodland, moist savannah mosaic & sometimes dry savannah woodlands. Found in Dem. Republic of Congo (Zaire) & northern Angola, fron sea level to 1,500 m elevation; also in Zambia & Zimbabwe, & possibly northern Mozambique.

Activity and Behavior

Terrestrial, mainly nocturnal, & fairly slow-moving. Usually hides in holes underground cover or in logs during the day. Inoffensive, allows itself to be handled but if teased or molested, may flatten & inflate its body, lift its front half off the surface & jerk side-to-side, may bite if restrained.

Venom Characteristics

Not much known, but probably neurotoxic. Seldom bite humans, no serious envenomations nor deaths of humans reported as caused by this species.

Elapsoidea laticincta

Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Elapechis laticinctus, Elapsoidea sundevallii laticincta

Common Names: Werner's (African) garter snake

Description

Small, cylindrical, glossy snake (neither fat nor thin), w/ short head, dark eyes set well forward on bullet-shaped head, smooth scales in 13 midbody dorsal rows, adults usually 25-40 cm long (max. 55 cm); body black or dark brown, w/ 8-17 pale brown to reddish-brown cross bands (may look like paired, fine, pale bands in older individuals). Juveniles more brightly colored. Fixed upper front fangs.

Habitat

Mainly found in savannah & woodlands, but up to forest edge, known from forest-savannah mosaic in Bangangai, Sudan. Limited to several sub-Saharan countries in central Africa, north of the equator.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial, mainly mainly nocturnal, becomes active at dusk. Slow-moving, docile, will not bite if handled, unless seriously molested & restrained. If irritated, may flatten or inflate its body, or lift front half of its body off the ground & jerk from side to side. Oviparous (typical clutch size not known); main prey probably smooth-bodied lizards, frogs, & even other snakes.

Venom Characteristics

Not much known, probably neurotoxic, like other Elapids.

Elapsoidea loveridgei

Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Elapsoidea decosteri colleti, E d. multicincta, E. loveridgei colleti, E. l. loveridgei, E. l. multicincta, E. l. scalaris, E. sundevallii colleti, E. s. loveridgei, E. s. multicincta

Common Names: East African garter snake, Loveridge's garter snake

Description

Small, slender, smooth Elapid, adults usually 30-55 cm long (max. about 65 cm). Very similar to E. semiannulata in body structural characters, but light body crossbands presist in older adults, & colors vary, some have bright pinkish or red bands (very rarely very old individuals will become almost totally gray or black).

Habitat

Found mainly in woodland, savannah & grassland (mostly at fairly high altitudes) or in forest-savannah mosaic, but not in deep forest or semi-desert. Rarely found below 800 m elevation; in parts of its range, may be found up to 2,200 m elevation.

Activity and Behavior

See Elapsoidea semiannulata.

Venom Characteristics

See Elapsoidea semiannulata.

Elapsoidea nigra

Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Elapechis niger, Elapsoidea sundevallii nigra

Common Names: Usambara (African) garter snake, Black (African) garter snake

Description

Very similar to E. semianulata in most body structure characters. Small, fairly slender, smooth-scaled Elapid, adults usually 30-50 cm long (max. about 60 cm); body black to gray, w/ 18-23 light crossbands, which may be light brown to pinkish, chin white, belly brown, tail has 2 or 3 crossbands. Juveniles always banded, adults have thinner & less obvious bands. One pair of fixed upper front fangs.

Habitat

Found mainly in evergreen montane forest, but may also occur in moist savannah. Limited to northeastern Tanzania at moderately high elevations (but NOT reported from the Kilimanjaro massif itself).

Activity and Behavior

Terrestrial (burrowing) & mainly nocturnal (also active at dusk). Eats mainly (maybe exclusively) burrowing legless amphibians(Cecilians), possibly occasionally other snakes, or frogs. Oviparous, females usually lay 2-5 eggs/ clutch. For details about behavior of a closely-related species, See Elapsoidea semiannulata.

Venom Characteristics

See Elapsoidea semiannulata.

Elapsoidea semiannulata

Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Elapechis boulengeri, E. guentheri, E. sundevallii, Elapsoidea boulengeri, E. decosteri moebiusi, E. d. huilensis, E. guntherii, E. moebiusi, E. semiannulata boulengeri, E. s. moebiusi, E. s. semiannulata, E. sundevallii guentheri, E. s. moebiusi, E. s. semiannulata

Common Names: Half-banded (Africa) garter snake

Description

Small, moderately stout, glossy, dark snake; adults usually 30-50 cm long (max. 70 cm); body black, short tail, fixed front fangs, smooth-scaled, 13 longitudinal midbody dorsal scale rows. Young individuals have 8-24 distinct narrow white or yellow crossbands which fade w/ age, at about 20 cm long, bands become pale grey & fade, very dark adults may be hard to ID.

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Habitat

Found in a wide range of woodlands, savannahs & forest clearing edges. Two distinctly separated populations; one from the western-most AFrican coast eastward through northwestern Uganda; the other from the western coast of Angola eastward to the eastern coasts of Tanzania, Zimbabwe & South Africa.

Activity and Behavior

Terrestrial, burrowing, mainly nocturnal, more active just after a rain. Hides in holes, underground cover or under logs in daytime. Inoffensive, can be handled, but may flatten & inflate body if molested, & may even bite if restrained too much. May lift front half of body & jerk body sideways. Eats mainly other snakes, lizards, frogs, & occasionally rodents.

Venom Characteristics

Not much known, probably neurotoxic, but few reported bites of humans, & none of those reported to result in serious bite effects or envenomations of humans, so far.

Elapsoidea spp.

Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Elapsoidea spp.; there are currently 8 named species, but both E. chelazzii & E. trapei are extremely rare (the former may be extinct) & only the other 6 (addressed individually in this data base) are likely to be encountered by people at all.

Common Names: African garter snakes

Description

Small, moderately slender Elapids, adults usually 40-60 cm long; moderately slender, smooth-scaled, terrestrial, & nocturnal. Body of most species generally uniformly black or gray-black, w/ lighter dorsal crossbanding on adults of most species. Head bullet-shaped, not distinct from the neck. Fixed upper front fangs. Tail short.

Habitat

Generally found in coastal forest, highveld grassland, or arid savanna. All are limited to central & southern Africa.

Activity and Behavior

Shy, secretive, mainly nocturnal & mainly terrestrial (semi-fossorial) snakes that spend their days hiding under stones or in burrows. Sluggish, inoffensive, & seldom bite even in self-defense. Oviparous (clutch size not reported), probably prey on lizards, frogs, & other snakes, & maybe rarely on small rodents.

Venom Characteristics

Venom likely neurotoxic. Not considered lethal to man. No known antivenom produced.

Elapsoidea sundevallii

Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Elapsoidea sundevallii decosteri, E. s. fitzsimonsi, E. s. longicauda, E. s. media, E. s. sundevallii,

Common Names: Sundevall's (African) garter snake, Southern African garter snake, Natal garter snake (E. s. sundevallii), Kalahari garter snake (E. s. fitzsimonsi), high veld garter snake (E. s. media), long-tailed garter snake (E. s. longicauda), De Coster's garter snake (E. s. decosteri)

Description

Very similar to E. semiannulata in physical characters. Colors & patterns vary, smooth-scaled, 13 midbody dorsal scale rows, head bullet-shaped w/ eyes set well forward. Juveniles of all subspecies are strongly marked w/ 21-38 dark & light bands which are all nearly equally wide. Most subspecies lose distinct bands fairly early in life. Usually small, but long-tailed subspecies can reach 1.4 m long.

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Habitat

Found in a wide range of habitats, from coastal woodlands & dune thickets to high altitude grassland & slopes of Drakenberg mountains, & moist & dry savannah, from sea level to 1,600 m elevation. The Kalahari garter snake lives in semi-desert, & dry, rocky hill country.

Activity and Behavior

See Elapsoidea semiannulata.

Venom Characteristics

See Elapsoidea semiannulata.

Enhydrina schistosa

Identification

Family: Hydrophiidae

Scientific Names: Disteira russelii, D. schistosa, Enhydrina valakadien, E. velakadien, E. valakadyn, E. valakadyen, E. vikadien, Hydrophis bengalensis, H. fasciata, H. schistosa, H. schistosus, H. subfasciata, Hydrus valakadyn, Polydontes annulatus, Thalassophis werneri

Common Names: Beaked sea snake, common sea snake

Description

Large sea snake, adults usually 1-1.2 m long (max. 1.6 m); rostral scale projects down past supralabial scales, head distinct, anterior body thick, posterior part of body very thick, skin looks "loose," scales somewhat imbricate (juxtaposed), w/ short central keel, 43-55 midbody scale rows, no suborbital stripe, w/ front fixed fangs, young dark gray above, whitish below, w/ dark gray or black annuli (most obvious dorsally), pattern obscured in adults (uniformly gray), tail oarlike.

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Habitat

Mainly found in shallow, muddy coastal waters, sometimes goes up into estuaries or rivers. Found in Indo-Pacific waters including both coasts of Thailand, Malaysia, & Indonesia; & from the Persian Gulf (south to Madagascar & the seychelles) to coastal waters of Queensland, Australia & western coast of New Guinea.

Activity and Behavior

Hunt bottom-dwelling fish (main prey) by touch in low-visibility estuarine waters. Often come into contact w/ native fishermen (or persons wading) in near-shore waters, leading to bites & envenomation. Not known to leave the water voluntarily, awkward on land. Grasps & holds onto victim when it bites. Ovoviviparous, w/ avg. 3-30 young.

Venom Characteristics

Very dangerous, w/ potent venom (LD50 in mice = 0.01 mg/kg) containing myotoxins & postsynaptic neurotoxins. Could potentially deliver enough venom in a single bite to kill 22 adult humans. Extremely dangerous & responsible for most of the human envenomations by sea snakes. Has caused numerous human fatalities.

Eristocophis macmahoni

Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Eristocophis macmahonii

Common Names: McMahon’s desert viper, Macmahon-viper, Asian sand viper, leaf-nosed viper

Description

Small, stout-bodied, sand viper, adults usually 60-70 cm long (max. 80 cm); Body usually pale reddish-brown, tan or khaki, w/ lateral rows of dark spots w/ pale edges. Belly may be uniform or marked w/ faint irregular spots. Relatively large broad head w/ scattered dark flecks on top.

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Habitat

Found almost exclusively on sand dunes below 1,200 m elevation, in southwestern Afghanistan, southeastern Iran, & western Pakistan.

Activity and Behavior

Terrestrial (semi-fossorial). Most active during twilight & at night. Alert, bad-tempered. Buries itself in sand. Resorts to sidewinding movement when hurried or alarmed. When aggitated, hisses loudly, raises head & loop of body well above ground, & strikes w/ great vigor. Rarely encountered.

Venom Characteristics

Venom shows strong hemorrhagic activity. Symptoms may include local swelling & inflammation; abdominal pain & distention; & inability to swallow & open the eyes, suggesting possible neurotoxicity. Has caused serious human envenomations & deaths. No known antivenom currently produced.