Venomous Animals - N

Naja anchietae
Naja annulifera
Naja atra
Naja haje
Naja kaouthia
Naja katiensis
Naja mandalayensis
Naja melanoleuca
Naja mossambica
Naja naja
Naja nigricollis
Naja nivea
Naja oxiana
Naja pallida
Naja philippinensis
Naja sagittifera
Naja samarensis
Naja siamensis
Naja sputatrix
Naja sumatrana
Notechis ater
Notechis scutatus

Naja anchietae

Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Naja annulifera anchietae, N. haje (in part), N. h. anchietae

Common Names: Anchieta's cobra, Anchieta's Egyptian cobra, Angolan cobra

Description

Large, thick-bodied cobra, w/ short, broad head & fairly large eyes, adults usually 1.3-1.8 m long (max. 2.5 m); body yellowish brown, to dark brown, dark band on neck fades w/ age, 17 midbody dorsal scale rows, belly yellow, heavily blotched w/ dark brown. A pair of fixed, upper front fangs.

Habitat

Mainly found in savannah or grassland (never forest or desert), usually at low altitudes but has been reported up to 2,000 m elevation. Often lives in old termite nests, rock holes, or rodent burrows. Mainly limited to southeastern Africa (Angola, Botswana, Namibia, & Zambia).

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial & nocturnal, but active day & night, basks in sun; not very aggressive unless cornered or molested, then usually rears front of body & spreads 10-12 cm wide hood. Will strike suddenly if bothered more. Preys mainly on small mammals. Oviparous, w/ 8-30 eggs/ clutch.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly potent neurotoxic, possibly also has cardiotoxic factors, large volume & rather large fangs can lead to serious envenomation. Known to cause human deaths every year.

Naja annulifera

Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Naja haje (in part), N. h. haje (in part), N. haje annulifera, N. nigricola

Common Names: Snouted cobra, annulated cobra

Description

Big, fairly stout-bodied cobra w/ short, broad head & large eyes, adults usually 1.3-1.8 m long (max. 2.5 m); body yellowish-brown to olive above, yellowish w/ dark brown blotches below, dark brown band on venter of throat, 19 midbody dorsal scale rows; a common banded form has black body w/ 7-9 yellow bands on body (& 2 on tail). This color phase is widespread within the species's range; only develops bands after growing to about 60 cm long.

Habitat

Mainly found in savannah, grassland, or near agricultural land; never in forests or desert, at low elevations; fairly widespread in southeastern Africa.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial, mainly nocturnal, but active & basks in sun, preys mainly on small mammals, often found near human habitations. Generally not very aggressive, but will raise body & spread 10-11 cm wide hood if cornered or distrubed, may strike suddenly if further molested.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly contains a potent neurotoxin, & maybe also a cardiotoxic factor, large fangs & venom glands can produce serious envenomation; a number of human bites & fatalities have been reported to have been caused by this species.

Naja atra

Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Naja kaouthia atra, N. naja atra, N. sputatrix atra, N. tripudians var. fasciata, N. t. var. scopinucha, N. j. unicolor

Common Names: Chinese cobra, Chinesische Kobra

Description

Large, fairly heavy-bodied cobra, adults usually 1.4-1.6 m long (max. 2.0 m); Body varies from gray-brown to black; belly pale. Back of hood unmarked or w/ pale, black-edged band w/ central dark spot or spectacle marking. May have 2 separate dark-rimmed white circles.

Habitat

Common in various habitats including rice fields, marshy areas, forests, & human settlements. Limited to southeastern China, Laos, Taiwan, & Vietnam.

Activity and Behavior

When threatened, rears up & spreads prominent hood. Capable of "spitting" venom into the face of an aggressor.

Venom Characteristics

Primarily neurotoxic; also cytotoxic. May cause immediate pain & swelling at site, followed by blistering & discoloration. Within hours after bite, victim may have vomiting & abdominal pain followed by drowsiness, ptosis, & inability to open mouth. Human deaths have been reported (documented) to have been caused by this species.

Naja haje

Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Coluber candidissimus, C. haje, Cerastes candidus, Naja haje anchietae, N. h. arabica, N. j. haje, N. h. legionis, N. h. var. viridis, Vipera haje

Common Names: Egyptian cobra, African banded cobra, banded cobra, brown cobra, Cleopatra's asp, Arabian cobra

Description

Big, thick-bodied cobra, w/ broad head & fairly large eyes, adults usually 1.3-1.8 m (max. 2.5 m); body usually yellow-gray to brown or blue-black, but extremely variable. Belly yellowish w/ dark blotches. Most specimens have dark brown or black band across throat (ventral).

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Habitat

Various habitats: flat land, scrubby bushes, grass clumps, irrigated fields, rocky hillsides, old ruins; may hide in old termite mound or rodent burrow; often near villages. Found at sea level to 1,600 m elevation. Not found in rain forests or extreme desert conditions. Geographically widespread in Africa & southern Arabian peninsula.

Activity and Behavior

Nocturnal; emerges at dusk, often seen basking in sun near a retreat in early morning. Often occupies abandoned rodent burrows or termite mounds. While not overtly aggressive, if molested, it will rear & spread an impressive hood up to 12 cm wide. Can bite, & sometimes spreads hood, without rearing. Preys mainly on small mammals.

Venom Characteristics

Venom mainly neurotoxic, affecting nerves controlling respiratory muscles, & possibly w/ cardiotoxins. Untreated cases may die of respiratory failure, sometimes within 5 hrs. Large volume of venom available, & w/ relatively large fangs, it can produce serious envenomation. Many human bites & fatalities annually.

Naja kaouthia

Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Naja kaouthia kaothia, N. k. suphanensis, Naja naja kaothuia, N. n. sputatrix, Naja tripudians var. fasciata [ Note: Naja naja siamensis has reportedly been used to refer to this species (instead of the actual species, Naja siamensis) in some past toxicological literature. ]

Common Names: Monocellate cobra, monacled cobra, Monokelkobra, Thai cobra

Description

Adults exceed 1.5 m long (max. 2.2+ m). Color & pattern varies widely. Body usually yellow, yellow-tan, brown, greenish brown, olive, or black; may show alternate wide & narrow transverse dark bands. Dorsal side of hood often w/ white annular marks like a pair of (or single) monacle or spectacles.

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Habitat

Occurs in virtually all habitats except dense forests; frequently occurs in cities and villages. Most common cobra in much of Southeast Asia; mainly from sea level to 700 m elevation.

Activity and Behavior

Most active at twilight, but may bask in sun during day. Shelters in areas such as rock piles, termite mounds, fallen logs, mammal burrows, & building foundations. Does not "spit" venom at aggressor. Eats a wide range of prey, from lizards to mammals & birds. Oviparous w/ 8-45 eggs/ clutch.

Venom Characteristics

Contains potent neurotoxin & cytotoxin. Pain & swelling at bite site often followed by blistering & extensive necrosis. Neurotoxic symptoms may include ptosis, drowsiness, dysphagia, dysphonia, & generalized weakness. High mortality rate following envenomation.

Naja katiensis

Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Naja mozambica katiensis, Naja nigricolis katiensis, Naja trilepis

Common Names: Mali cobra, West African (brown) spitting cobra

Description

A small, moderately thick-bodied cobra, adults usually 0.5-0.8 m long (max. about 1 m); body usually reddish-brown, warm brown, or maroon, w/ orange-brown on flanks, belly light orange-brown, w/ smooth dorsal scales in 23-27 midbody rows. A broad dark band on underside of throat may form a ring, but this usually fades in older specimens.

Habitat

Found mainly in savannah & semi-desert, from Senegal & southern Mauritania east to Nigeria & Cameroon.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial but climbs into low bushes; Mainly crepuscular, but often basks in sun. Fast-moving & alert. Usually tries to get away if disturbed, but if cornered or molested, raises front of its body & spreads a narrow hood. If further disturbed, it often "spits" (sprays) 2 jets of venom at the intruder's head & eyes. Oviparous (clutch size not reported), preys mainly on amphibians, also other snakes & sometimes rodents.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly neurotoxic venom. One of the most common causes of venomous snake bites in Senegal. Has been reported to have caused human deaths.

Naja mandalayensis

Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names:

Common Names: Mandalay spitting cobra

Description

Moderately large, fairly stout cobra, adults about 82 cm long; body yellowish-brown to dull brown, w/ darker brownish mottling, belly pale w/ very few dark speckles, dark under chin & throat, followed by paler clear area, then by 2 or 3 dark bands across venter of hood, no obvious markings on dorsum (back/ top) of hood. Fixed front upper pair of fangs modified for "spitting" venom.

Habitat

Found mainly in the central dry zone of Burma (Myanmar).

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal, but often basks in sun & hunts at dusk. Usually avoids large animals & humans, but if threatened, will rear up & spread an obvious hood. If further molested, will often "spit" (spray) venom toward eyes (head) of any aggressor (can spray fairly accurately for nearly 2 m distance).

Venom Characteristics

Not well known, but probably mainly neurotoxic, w/ cytotoxic factors.

Naja melanoleuca

Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Aspidelaps bocagii, Naja annulata (in part), Naja haje var. leucosticta, N. h. var. melanoleuca, Naja melanoleuca aurata, N. m. melanoleuca, N. m. subflava

Common Names: Forest cobra, Black-and-white-lipped cobra, White-lipped cobra, Schwarzweisse Kobra

Description

Large, fairly slender cobra, adults usually 1.5-2.0 m long (max. 2.7 m), w/ 19 midbody dorsal scale rows. Background color usually glossy black, dark gray or dark brown above; belly creamy white to yellow, often w/ darker blotches.

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Habitat

Found mainly in tropical rain forest & subtropical forest areas; seldom found far from water. Fairly widespread along (near) rivers & surface waters throughout central & western Africa.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal & terrestrial (maybe semi-aquatic) Very active snake, climbs & swims well. May forage (hunt) on overcast days. Equally at home in trees, on ground, or swimming in lakes or rivers. When disturbed, rears to a great height; usually more than two-thirds of body raised off ground.

Venom Characteristics

Bites of humans reported infrequent, venom highly neurotoxic; human fatalities have been reported. Considered by many to be one of the most dangerous (to humans) snakes in West Africa, partly due to its aggressive behavior, rapid movement, rather large size, & potent venom.

Naja mossambica

Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Naja mossambica mossambica, N. nigricollis mossambica, N. n. nigricollis (in part)

Common Names: Mozambique spitting cobra, Mosambik-Speikobra

Description

Small to medium-sized cobra, adults usually 0.9-1.2 m long (max. 1.5 m). Background color generally pale-gray to olive-brown or black; each dorsal scale edged in black, dorsal scales smooth & in 23-25 midbody rows. Belly salmon-pink. Irregular black crossbands on throat (ventral side).

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Habitat

Most often found in open woodlands, plains, savanna, & rocky hillsides. Usually near water. Mainly limited to southeastern Africa.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal, but adults may emerge from shelters & bask in the sun during the day & forage at night. Young specimens much more diurnal & frequently encountered in the open at any time of day. React to intruders by rearing body & will often spray venom at aggressor (intruder) after only minimal provocation.

Venom Characteristics

Venom mainly cytotoxic & can cause considerable tissue damage; neurotoxic symptoms generally minor. Bites of humans infrequent & fatalities rare. Neurotoxic symptoms may occur if unusually large dose of venom is injected. Large specimens can "spit" venom >1.0 m.

Naja naja

Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Naja naja naja

Common Names: Indian spectacled cobra, Indian cobra, common Asian cobra, spectacled cobra

Description

Large, heavy-bodied cobra, adults usually 1.5-2.0 m long (max. 2.4 m). Body usually dark-brown or black to yellowish-white above & white or yellowish below. Distinctive markings include spectacle mark on top (dorsal surface) of expanded hood, w/ dark spot in middle of lighter ring, or within each "lens" of the "spectacles."

Habitat

Found in a variety of habitats: flat grasslands & jungles, among scattered trees, near rice fields & other cultivated areas, & near settlements. Occurs at sea level & higher elevations (to at least 300 m). Widespread throughout India & southern & southeastern Asia.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly diurnal; most active in evening & early morning. Not usually aggressive. When threatened or cornered, lifts upper body & spreads hood. When biting, holds on & chews savagely. Quick-moving & agile. Often lives in holes in embankments, hollows of trees. Oviparous w/ 8-32 (up to 45) eggs/ clutch. Preys on small mammals, birds, other snakes, lizards, frogs & toads.

Venom Characteristics

Potent neurotoxin w/ some hemotoxic factors. May cause severe local pain & swelling immediately after bite; dark discoloration, necrosis, & blistering may occur within 72 hours. Systemic symptoms include headache, nausea, vomiting, drooping eyelids. Thousands of bites of human & amny deaths each year due to bites by this species.

Naja nigricollis

Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Naja mossambica nigricincta, Naja nigricollis atriceps, N. n. nigricollis, N. n. nigricincta , N. n. occidentalis, N. n. woodi, N. n. var. crawshayi, Naja woodi

Common Names: Black-necked spitting cobra, western barred spitting cobra, black spitting cobra, Afrikanische Speikobra

Description

Medium to large cobra, adults usually 1.0-1.5 m long (max. 2.8 m). Body color highly variable, ranging from pinkish-tan in some geographical areas to uniformly black in others, most forms have 1 red(ish) & 1 black band across the underside (venter) of their throat. Dorsal scales smooth, w/ 17-25 rows at midbody. All-black & red-black specimens have been collected in some areas.

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Habitat

Found mainly in moist or dry savanna or sahel, where they shelter in abandoned termite mounds, rodent burrows, or hollow trees. Widespread across many countries in central & southern Africa.

Activity and Behavior

Generally nocturnal (or crepuscular), juveniles often active during day. Mainy terrestrial, but fairly good swimmers & climbers. Oviparous, usually 8-20 eggs/ clutch. Prey on a wide variety of animals, including toads, chickens (often raid chicken runs), other birds &/or eggs, small mammals, & lizards.

Venom Characteristics

Venom primarily cytotoxic, causing serious local tissue damage. Large specimens can "spit" venom as far as 3 m, usually aiming at intruders' eyes (or heads). Venom does not affect unbroken skin, but can cause great pain & possible tissue destruction in the eyes.

Naja nivea

Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Coluber nivea, Naja flava, Naja gutturalis, Naja haje var. capensis, Naja intermixta, Vipera flava

Common Names: Cape cobra, Kap-Kobra

Description

Medium-sized, slender cobra, adults usually 1.2-1.5 m long (max. 2.0 m); body colors extremely variable, usually yellowish to reddish-brown but occasionally uniformly black; lighter below. Smooth, glossy scales, 19-21 midbody dorsal scale rows, most have broad brown ventral neck band that fades w/ age.

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Habitat

Found mainly in arid areas, particularly along rivers & well-drained open areas. Often near human habitations on farms or in partially developed suburbs where they may enter houses to escape heat of day.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial & crepuscular (or diurnal), active during day & at twilight when they forage for food (hunt). Agile & alert; will escape if possible when molested. If retreat is not possible, rears, spreads hood, & strikes out aggressively, may even advance on the intruder. Oviparous, eats mainly small mammals, frogs, toads, & small birds. In the Kalahari Desert region, this species is sometimes preyed upon by meerkats.

Venom Characteristics

Venom primarily neurotoxic; most toxic of African cobra venoms. Bites of humans are common, & fatalities often result, especially if untreated.

Naja oxiana

Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Naja naja oxiana, Naja tripudians var. caeca (in part), Tomyris oxiana

Common Names: Transcapian cobra, central Asian cobra, Oxus cobra, Mittelasiatische Kobra, Caspian cobra

Description

Large cobra, adults usually about 1.8 m long. Body uniform yellowish, brownish, grayish, or black; may have traces of wide dark crossbands. Belly pale, w/ two dark ventral bands on neck. No distinct hood mark present.

Habitat

Found mainly in stony, rocky, shrub-covered foothills. In some areas, found above 3,000 m elevation. Westernmost species of the "Asian Cobras."

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial & diurnal; most active during evening & early morning. Not generally aggressive. When threatened or cornered, lifts upper body & spreads hood. When biting, holds on & chews savagely. Quick-moving & agile. Lives in holes in embankments, hollows of trees. Oviparous w/ 6-19 eggs/ clutch reported; eats mainly small mammals, amphibians & birds.

Venom Characteristics

Primarily neurotoxic. May cause severe local pain & swelling immediately following bite. Symptoms such as weakness, drowsiness, & paralysis of throat may appear less than 1 hour after bite & rapidly progress to respiratory failure & death.

Naja pallida

Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Naja mozambica pallida, Naja nigricollis pallida

Common Names: Red spitting cobra, African cobra, Rote Speikobra

Description

Small to medium-sized cobra, adults usually 0.7-1.2 m long (max. 1.5 m). Body color variable, including red or orange (particularly in areas w/ reddish soil), pale red, pinkish, brown, yellow, or gray. Underside of the neck has a broad dark band (sometimes 2 or 3 crossbars), belly reddish sometimes w/ white chin & throat. Head fairly broad. Dorsal scales smooth, w/ 21-27 midbody rows.

Habitat

Primarily found in dry savanna & semi-desert areas, including oases & hilly areas; reportedly not found either in extreme desert or dense woodland habitats. Mainly limited to northeastern & eastern Africa (mainly east of the Rift Valley).

Activity and Behavior

Both nocturnal (mainly adults) & diurnal (mainly juveniles); reportedly found under brush piles or other ground cover or in holes when not active. Mainly terrestrial, but will climb into bushes or low trees. Fast moving & alert, it rears up relatively high if disturbed & spreads a long narrow hood. If further molested, will often spit (spray) twin jets of venom at the intruder.

Venom Characteristics

Not well characterized; as w/ other spitting cobras, venom may be more cytotoxic than neurotoxic in effect. Effectiveness of available anitvenoms is not known. N. pallida has been reported from several countries in central & eastern Africa.

Naja philippinensis

Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Naja kaouthia samarensis, N. naja philippinensis, N. sputatrix samarensis, N. tripudians var. caeca

Common Names: Northern Philippine cobra, Philippine cobra, Philippinen-Kobra

Description

Medium to large cobra, adults usually about 1 m long, (max. about 1.3 m). Background color yellowish to olive-brown above becoming paler on outer scale rows. Belly usually yellowish-white. Adult specimens lack obvious dorsal markings.

Habitat

Found in a variety of habitats. Common in open plains, jungles, & areas populated by humans. Limited to the Philippine Islands (mainly Luzon & Minoro).

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial & nocturnal. Timid, usually tries to escape when encountered. If cornered, rears up & spreads hood; bites quickly as a last resort. Most dangerous when surprised in close quarters. When biting, tends to hold on & chew savagely.

Venom Characteristics

Potent, fast-acting neurotoxin. Symptoms usually include ptosis, slurred speech, & difficulty breathing. May cause severe local pain & swelling immediately following bite; local necrosis in less than 10% of bite cases. If venom enters eyes, may cause damage to corneas.

Naja sagittifera

Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Naja kaouthia (in part), N. k. sagittifera, Naja naja sagittifera, Naja tripudians var. sagittifera

Common Names: Andaman cobra

Description

Not well known. Medium-sized cobra, adults usually about 1 m long. Body usually yellowish to dark brownish, some specimens w/ limited, indistinct darker brownish dorsal mottling or crossbanding (apparently fades w/ age). Resembles the Indian Cobra, N. naja, in overall appearance & form (usually smaller), but does not have that species' distinctive "spectacle" dorsal hood marking.

Habitat

Not well known. Reportedly found in a variety of habitats from grassy areas, open forests, & agricultural areas near human habitations. Limited to the Andaman Islands (a territory of India), almost due south of Burma.

Activity and Behavior

Not much known, probably mainly terrestrial & nocturnal (or crepuscular), oviparous (clutch size not reported); mainly preys on available small mammals (especially rats in agricultural crop areas), amphibians & birds.

Venom Characteristics

Not well known, but probably mainly neurotoxic. Occasional serious envenomations of humans, & (rarely) fatalities have been reported.

Naja samarensis

Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Naja kaouthia samarensis, Naja naja samarensis, Naja sputatrix samarensis, Naja triupudians var. samarensis

Common Names: Samar cobra, Peters cobra, Samar-Kobra, southern Philippine cobra

Description

Medium-sized cobra, adults usually 0.8-0.9 m long (max. about 1.0 m). Body irridescent brownish-black above w/ yellowish reticular pattern on scales & interstitial skin. Chin & upper neck yellowish w/ broad black ventral band.

Habitat

Found in a variety of habitats. Common in open plains, jungles, & areas populated by man. Limited to certain southern Philippine Islands (e.g., Mindanao, Samar, Leyte, Bohol, Carniguin).

Activity and Behavior

Generally nocturnal. Timid; tries to escape when encountered. When cornered, rears up & spreads hood; bites as last resort. Most dangerous when surprised in close quarters. When biting, tends to hold on & chew savagely.

Venom Characteristics

Little known about its venom. Most likely mainly neurotoxic. May cause severe local pain & swelling immediately following bite. If venom enters eyes, may cause immediate burning pain w/ inflammation & possibly even permanent blindness.

Naja siamensis

Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Naja atra (in part), N. isanensis, N. naja atra, N. n. isanensis, N. n. sputatrix, N. n. kaouthia, N. n. kaouthis variety C, N. oxiana (in part), N. sputatrix atra, N. s. isanensis, N. tripudians (in part)

Common Names: Thai spitting cobra, Indo-Chinese spitting cobra, Indochinesische Speikobra

Description

Medium-sized, rather thick-bodied cobra, adults usually 75-90 cm long (max. 1.2 m). Body color variable. May be entirely black or brown, largely white w/ dorsal surface of hood black, or pale brown w/ whitish yellow anterior neck w/ dark band (or dark central blotch) below. Often has a narrow dark-brown to black vertebral stripe, w/ a series of "slightly widened" areas, from its head to its tail tip.

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Habitat

Found in a wide variety of habitats. Common in open plains, jungles, & areas populated by man. Mainly limited to Southeast Asia.

Activity and Behavior

Generally nocturnal. Timid; tries to escape when encountered. If cornered, rears up & spreads hood; may spit (spray) venom at intruder's eyes (head); bites as a last resort. Most dangerous when surprised in close quarters. When biting, tends to hold on & chew savagely. Oviparous (13-19 eggs/ clutch), preys mainly on rodents, toads & other snakes.

Venom Characteristics

Primarily neurotoxic. Usually causes local pain, swelling, & necrosis. If venom gets into eyes, it may cause immediate burning pain w/ lasting inflammation & possibly even permanent blindness. No specific antivenom produced, but paraspecific activity has been claimed for certain other antivenoms. Human fatalities from bites have been reported.

Naja sputatrix

Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Naja kaouthia sputatrix (in part), N. leptocoryphaea, N. naja sputatrix, N. tripudians sputatrix

Common Names: Javan spitting cobra, southern Indonesian spitting cobra, Indonesian spitting cobra, Javanische Speikobra

Description

Medium to large cobra, adults usually about 0.8-1.0 m long (max. 1.5 m). Background color usually uniformly gray, brown, or black above; belly paler, grayish black; throat whitish. Hood unmarked or w/ binocellate marking. Dorsal body scales often paler than visible darker underlying skin, giving an appearance that they are outlined w/ dark-brown or black.

Habitat

Mainly found in lowland dry forests or cultivated hills. Also fairly common in open plains, jungles, & areas populated by humans. Limited to Indonesia (Java, Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, Komodo, Alor, Lomblen, Sulawesi).

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial & nocturnal. Not aggressive, usually tries to escape when encountered. If cornered, rears up & spreads hood; may spit (spray) venom at eyes (head) of intruder (>1 m); bites as a last resort. Most dangerous when surprised in close quarters. When biting, it tends to hold on & chew savagely. Oviparous w/ 13-19 eggs/ clutch reported. Preys mainly on rodents, toads, & other snakes.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly neurotoxic (at postsynaptic sites), w/ cytotoxic (local necrotic) factors. May cause local pain, swelling, & necrosis. If venom gets into eyes, may cause immediate burning pain w/ long-lasting inflammation & possibly even permanent blindness. Only a few confirmed human fatalities due to bites (most were untreated) by this species.

Naja sumatrana

Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Naja kaouthia sputatrix (in part), N. naja leucodira, Naja naja miolepis, N. n. paucisquamis, N. n. sputatrix (in part), N. n. sumatrana, Naja sputatrix malayae, N. s. miolepis, N. s. sputatrix, Naja sumatrana miolepis, Naja tripudians var. caeca, N. t. leucodira, N. t. var. miolepis, N. t. var. nigra, N. t. var. sputatrix, N. t. sumatrana

Common Names: Sumatran spitting cobra, Equatorial spitting cobra, golden spitting cobra, Aquatoriale Speikobra

Description

Medium to large cobra, adults usually 0.9-1.1 m long (max. 1.5 m). Body color variable. In some areas, usually uniformly yellow or yellowish-green; elsewhere, uniformly jet-black w/ bluish-black belly & pale markings on neck & chin.

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Habitat

Found in a variety of habitats. Fairly common in open plains, jungles, & areas populated or cultivated by humans within its range. Apparently limited to Southeast Asia.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly terrestrial & nocturnal. Timid; usually tries to escape if encountered. If cornered, rears up & spreads hood; may spit venom at head (eyes) of intruder w/ good accuracy >1 m; bites as a last resort. Most dangerous when surprised in close quarters. When biting, tends to hold on & chew savagely. Oviparous (clutch size not known, but likely 12-20 eggs, based on closely-related species). Probably preys mainly on rodents, toads, & other snakes.

Venom Characteristics

Potent neurotoxin. Local symptoms may include pain, swelling, & necrosis. If venom gets into eyes, it may cause immediate burning pain w/ lasting inflammation & possibly even permanent blindness. Occasional human envenomations & fatalities due to bites by this species have been reported.

Notechis ater

Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Hoplocephalus ater, Notechis ater ater, N. a. humphreysi, N. a. niger, N. a. severityi, N. scutatus ater, N. s. niger

Common Names: Black tiger snake, Krefft's tiger snake, Tasmanian tiger snake, peninsular tiger snake, Chappell Island tiger snake, Schwarze Tigerotter

Description

Large, stout-bodied snake, w/ large head, blunt snout, small eyes, smooth, glossy scales, often darker at their tips; adults usually 1.2-2.0 m long (max. about 2.4 m); a pair of fixed upper front fangs; body uniformly black to matt-brown (Tasmanian forms sometimes completely dark yellowish), belly lighter; some juveniles have crossbands. Usually 17 (range 17-21) mid-body dorsal scale rows.

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Habitat

Found in marshland, dry coastal grassland, & on rocky inslands; on southeastern Australia & Tasmania.

Activity and Behavior

Both diurnal & nocturnal, mainly terrestrial. Feeds on frogs, small mammals, birds, & lizards (often prey choice is limited in their natural habitats). Usually avoids large animals & humans, but will strike rapidly & vigorously if molested. Ovoviviparous, w/ 6-90 young/ litter. Individual snakes may live 30 years.

Venom Characteristics

Contains neurotoxic (affecting both pre- & post-synaptic sites), myotoxic & procoagulant factors. Bites & envenomations of humans by this species are fairly common each year within its range. Human fatalities are currently rare, probably mainly due to availability of effective antivenom (but were historically common, before such antivenom availability).

Notechis scutatus

Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Alecto fasciolata, Hoplocephalus fuscus, Naja scutata, Notechis ater occidentalis, Notechis scutatus occidentalis, N. s. scutatus

Common Names: Mainland tiger snake, eastern tiger snake, western tiger snake, Ostliche Tigerotter

Description

Large, stout-bodied snakes w/ large head, blunt snout, small eyes, smooth, glossy scales, adults usually 1.2-1.8 m long (max. about 2.1 m). Body matt-black or brown above, yellow belly w/ fine yellow bars extending upward on sides (sometimes these become thin dorsal crossbands). Usually 19 (range 17-21) mid-body dorsal scale rows. A pair of fixed upper front fangs.

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Habitat

Found in rain forests, flooded river valleys, swamps, & near human habitations. Most common in temperate, cool, damp habitats. Known from southeastern & southwestern Australia (New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Victoria, Western Australis).

Activity and Behavior

Both nocturnal & diurnal, bask in sun; terrestrial, may be sluggish during cold periods or before they warm up in the morning. Usually tries to avoid a threat from large animals or humans. If cornered, may flatten their neck laterally (forming a vertical hood-like shape) as a warning shortly before they strike (a strike is quick & vigorous). Mainly eat frogs, small mammals, birds, or lizards. Ovoviviparous, reportedly bear 14-80 young/ litter.

Venom Characteristics

Contains factors that are mainly neurotoxic (affecting both pre- & post synaptic sites), but also myotoxic & procoagulant. Bites & envenomations of humans by this species are fairly common each year within its range, but human fatalities are rare, probably mainly due to availability of effective antivenom. Historically, human fatalities were common.