Venomous Animals - T

Thalassophina viperina
Thelotornis capensis
Thelotornis kirtlandii
Tityus bahiensis
Tityus clathratus
Tityus discrepans
Tityus isabelceciliae
Tityus paraensis
Tityus pittieri
Tityus serrulatus
Tityus spp.
Tityus trinitatus
Tityus trivittatus
Tityus uruguayensis
Triceratolepidophis sieversorum
Trimeresurus albolabris
Trimeresurus erythrurus
Trimeresurus flavomaculatus
Trimeresurus gramineus
Trimeresurus kanburiensis
Trimeresurus macrolepis
Trimeresurus macrops
Trimeresurus malabaricus
Trimeresurus popeorum
Trimeresurus puniceus
Trimeresurus purpureomaculatus
Trimeresurus spp. (general)
Trimeresurus sumatranus
Trimeresurus trigonocephalus
Tropidechis carinatus
Tropidolaemus wagleri

Thalassophina viperina

Identification

Family: Hydrophiidae

Scientific Names: Diseira praescutata, Disteira viperina, Distira viperina, Hydrophis doliata, H. jayakari, H. nigra, H. plumbea, H. shistosus, Lapemis viperina, Praescutata viperina, Thalassophina viperinus, Thalassophis viperina, T. viperinus

Common Names: Schmidt's Sea Snake, viperine sea snake, sea snake

Description

Medium-sized fairly stout sea snake, adults usually 82-92 cm long. Body usually gray above, yellow-gray to white below (all gray, unmarked specimens known); upper & lower colors sharply divided along sides, often w/ 25-35 dark brownish rhomboidal dorsal spots (rarely w/ dark crossbands). Crown of head dark or black, chin & throat cream. Scales hexagonal, overlapping, most scales on dorsal half of body keeled (w/ distinct ridge along middorsal line), 37-50 midbody dorsal scale rows.

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Habitat

Found only in marine waters of the southwestern Pacific & Indian Oceans; from Gulf of Oman & Persian Gulf eastward through northern Indian Ocean & most of southwestern Pacific Ocean.

Activity and Behavior

Not much known. Only swims in marine waters. Probably both diurnal & nocturnal, & may be attracted to lights of boats or docks at night. Biting behavior has not been reported, but probably hangs onto bitten object (or person) fairly persistently (as documented for some other sea snakes). Probably ovoviviparous (litter size not reported) & probably feeds on various available fish, eels, or other marine animals.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly potent cytotoxic, neurotoxic, & myotoxic factors. Seldom encountered by humans & has a pair of very small, fragile, fixed upper front fangs. Not aggressive & tends to avoid humans, but bites have been recorded. Occasional human envenomations, & even deaths, have been reported but not well documented.

Thelotornis capensis

Identification

Family: Colubridae

Scientific Names: Dryiophis oatesi, Dryiophis kirtlandii var. mossambicana, Thelotornis capensis capensis, T. c. mossambicanus, T. c. oatesi, T. c. schilsi, T. mossambicanus, Thelotornis kirtlandi capensis [ NOTE: This is the only one, of 4 currently named species of this genus, which has been reported to cause lethal human envenomations. The 2 species NOT addressed in this data base are quite rare, not reported to have bitten nor envenomated a human, & are seldom even encountered by humans.]

Common Names: Savannah vine snake, bird snake, twig snake, Oates vine snake, Eastern vine snake, Eastern twig snake

Description

Very long, extremely slender vine snake, adults usually 0.8-1.2 m (max. 1.6 m). Body gray-brown w/ black & pink flecks. Tongue bright red-orange w/ black tip. Lance-shaped head & large eyes w/ keyhole-shaped pupils. Belly pink-gray w/ many dark gray blotches, 19 midbody dorsal scale rows. Top of head blue-green, w/ lots of black & some pink spots. Tail very long & thin.

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Habitat

Found mainly in savannah, in moist miombo woodlands & riparian forest, & sometimes in coastal forests, as well a dry savannah w/ mopane & acacia trees. Occurs in southern & southeastern Africa.

Activity and Behavior

Arboreal; most common in low shrubs, bushes, & dead trees. Usually timid, although easily aroused. When aroused, inflates neck region vertically, displaying bright lateral interstitial coloration. Eats mainly lizards, birds, frogs, other snakes, & occasionally, bats or other arboreal small mammals.

Venom Characteristics

Venom primarily hemotoxic. Bites & envenomations of humans are rare, but at least a few fatalities have been confirmed. Such bites require the snake to chew because the fixed rear fangs are rather short & not grooved. After envenomation & a latent period of 1-24 hrs., generalized bleeding & necrosis quite distant from the bite can occur.

Thelotornis kirtlandii

Identification

Family: Colubridae

Scientific Names: Dryiophis kirtlandii, Leptophis kirtlandii, Oxybelis kirtlandii, O. violacea, O. lecomptei, Tragophis rufulus, Thelotornis kirtlandi kirtlandi, Thelotornis kirtlandi oatesi

Common Names: Bird snake, twig snake, forest vine snake, forest twig snake, Lianennatter, Vogelnatter, Graue Baumnatter

Description

Long, very thin tree snake, adults usually 1.0-1.5 m long (max. 1.7 m). Body ashy-gray to pinkish-brown above; uniform or w/ poorly distinguished blotches & crossbands anteriorly, 17 midbody dorsal scale rows, belly paler. Large fixed rear fangs. Long, flat head & eyes w/ horizontally elongated pupils. Top of head usually solid green, but has turned to solid brown in some captive specimens exposed to strong bright sun.

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Habitat

Mainly found in forest & thick woodland, but also in moist savannah & extensive reedbeds. Seems most common around natural glades. Often found in & around farmland, parks, & gardens within forests. Distibuted in several equatorial central African countries.

Activity and Behavior

Arboreal; intricate coloration & pattern make it almost invisible when in trees or shrubbery. Usually timid; seldom bites unless strongly provoked, then makes spectacular display w/ greatly (vertically) inflated neck before striking. Eats mainly lizards, birds, & sometimes other snakes. Catches & usually consumes prey while hanging from a bush or tree. Oviparous, w/ usually 4-12 eggs/ clutch.

Venom Characteristics

Venom mainly hemotoxic; few bites, fewer significant envenomations, & no deaths of humans known to have been caused by this snake.

Tityus bahiensis

Identification

Family: Buthidae

Scientific Names: Scorpio bahiensis, Tityus eichstedtae

Common Names: Brazilian common brown scorpion, brown scorpion

Description

Small to medium-sized, adults usually 45-70+ mm long. Cephalothorax & tergites usually medium to dark reddish-brown above, legs paler w/ black spots, pedipalps light brown w/ dark brown spot on tibiae, postabdomen (cauda) pale brown (often tinged reddish-brown), often w/ indistinct darker brown dorsal blotches or spots, 5th caudal segment often very dark. Telson bulb often reddish. Pincer tips & sting dark brown to black. Immatures may be distinctly reddish.

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Habitat

Found in moderately moist to semi-arid (seasonally dry) sites, often near a water source, in warm regions. Often found in agricultural areas, sometimes enters homes. Apparently limited to east-central South America (Argentina, Brazil, & Paraguay). [Note: Specimens reportedly collected from El Salvador may have been mislabelled.]

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal, terrestrial (fossorial), often burrows 20-30 cm deep into semi-consolidated sandy soil or accumulated leaf litter or organic debris (usually under edge of a rock or log). Ovoviviparous, litter size not reported (probably >20). Prey on available insects & arthropods. Usually avoid humans & large animals, but will quickly try to sting any intruder if disturbed even slightly.

Venom Characteristics

Potent cardiotoxic & neurotoxic factors. Envenomation usually causes intense local pain, often also swelling, discoloration & systemic effects, like rapid heartbeat, nausea, breathing difficulties (pulmonary oedema), sweating, & lethargy. May cause serious pancreatic & gastrointestinal complications. Causes a significant number of serious, & some lethal, human envenomations annually within its range (especially in Sao Paulo & nearby states of Brazil).

Tityus clathratus

Identification

Family: Buthidae

Scientific Names: Tityus fahrenholtzi, T. guianensis, T. quelchi, T. quelchii

Common Names:

Description

Small to medium-sized, dark scorpion, adults usually 40-65+ mm long. Cephalothorax & tergites usually dark reddish-brown, legs paler brown w/ dark (often blackish) spots, pedipalps medium to light brown w/ dark brown spots on tibiae. Cauda medium-brown (often tinged reddish-brown) w/ large & small irregular dark blotches on top & sides. 5th caudal segment dark, nearly black. Pincer tips & sting blackish, telson bulb w/ reddish-brown tinge. Young lighter & more reddish.

Habitat

Usually found around soil banks or leaf litter near paths or forest margins of humid fairly open areas in coastal lowland neotropical moist or wet forests, at low elevations. Found (wide-spread) in similar habitats associated w/ rivers or streams in interior lowlands of northern & northeastern South America (east of the Andes).

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal, terrestrial & burrows up to 20-40 cm into moderately-loose soil or substrate. Seldom observed above local ground level. Ovoviviparous, litter size variable (12-20 young reported). Preys on available insects & arthropods. Tends to avoid humans, not as aggressive as several other species in this genus, but will sting if molested or pinched.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly neurotoxic w/ cardiotoxic (& possibly some cytotoxic) factors. Envenomation reportedly usually causes intense local pain, limited swelling, occasional discoloration, spreading numbness, rapid heartbeat, difficulty breathing, & sometimes sweating & muscle twitching. Human deaths due to envenomation by this species have been reported, but many of those have not been well documented.

Tityus discrepans

Identification

Family: Buthidae

Scientific Names: Androcottus discrepans, Tityus spinipalpis

Common Names:

Description

Small to medium-sized scorpion, w/ adults usually 40-60 mm long. Body usually light to medium brown (often darker above, sometimes w/ yellowish-green or reddish tinge) w/ lighter brown legs, pedipalps & cauda. Bases of pincers (chelae) relatively thick & bulbous, a single ventromedial carina (ridge) on metasomal (caudal) segments II-IV, 5th caudal segment often distinctly darker on its ventral side, pincer tips & sting very dark (nearly black).

Habitat

Mainly found in warm regions, in fairly moist to seasonally dry areas, often near a water source. May burrow 20+ cm deep into semi-consolidated sandy soil, leaf litter, or organic debris. Often found in margins of paths or near edges of open spaces in fairly sparse moist to wet coastal lowland forests (sometimes in agricultural areas) in northern & northeastern South America.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal & terrestrial. Burrows into semi-consolidated sandy soil or leaf litter (as deep as 20+ cm) often under the edge of a large rock or log. Ovoviviparous (litter size variable, but 10+ is common). Preys on locally available insects & arthropods. Tends to avoid humans, but will sting defensively at minimal provocation (e.g., if brushed against, stepped on, or trapped in clothing being donned).

Venom Characteristics

Mainly neurotoxic, w/ cardiotoxic & possibly cytotoxic factors. Causes many serious envenomations (stings) annually, & rather frequent deaths, of humans (especially small children) in parts of its range (especially parts of Venezuela).

Tityus isabelceciliae

Identification

Family: Buthidae

Scientific Names: Tityus discrepans (in part)

Common Names: Isabel Cecilia's scorpion

Description

Medium-sized scorpions, adults usually 50-80+ mm long (males larger than females). Body nearly all dark brown, caudal segments 5 & 6 (telson) nearly black. Carapace covered w/ varying pattern of multiple sizes of granulations (mostly small). Males have more pronounced dorsal keels & granulation. Chelae rather large & bulbous at base, tips black.

Habitat

Mainly found associated w/ loose soil or leaf litter (or organic debris) in wet, moist, or seasonally dry margins of open forest, agricultural land or peri-urban settings (e.g., very near major cities like Caracus) mainly along the northern slope of the Cordillera de la Costa of Venezuela. May also be present in (but not yet reported from) suitable habitats in nearby Columbia, French Guiana, & Brazil. Not found in dry, open grasslands or higher, colder elevations.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal, & terrestrial (burrows in loose substrate, if available), & rather aggressive toward any intruder which gets close to it. Will grasp & try to sting w/ little or no provocation. Preys on available insects & arthropods. Frequently enters humans' houses. Ovoviviparous, reportedly 15-25 young/ litter.

Venom Characteristics

Potent neurotoxin, w/ cardiotoxic & possibly also myoptoxic factors. Has been documented to have caused a significant number of serious human envenomations & several fatalities in Venezuela in the few years since it was named as a new species.

Tityus paraensis

Identification

Family: Buthidae

Scientific Names: Tityus amazonicus, T. cambridgei, T. piceus, T. sampaiocrulsi, T. werneri

Common Names: Black forest scorpion

Description

Medium-sized scorpion, adults usually 45-65 mm long. Body looks relatively thin & vertically flattened, usually uniformly dark-brown to blackish, legs, pedipalps, & segments of post-abdomen (cauda, including telson) relatively long & narrow, w/ low surface keels & granulations giving a generally "rough" appearance to most dorsal body surfaces.

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Habitat

Mainly found in wet to seasonally dry tropical or sub-tropical forests, mainly on Atlantic slopes of Panama & northern South America. Especially common in the Amazon basin (mainly in lowlands or relatively low forested hillsides), usually in sites w/ accumulations of organic debris & often near a stream or other water source, sometimes near a coast. Fairly wide-spread geographically, seldom encountered by humans except workers who spend time in the forest at dusk or night.

Activity and Behavior

Nocturnal & terrestrial (burrows into & under organic debris), can climb rough surfaces well. Often hides under stones, logs or loose bark during the day. Typically avoids humans but will quickly sting defensively if molested even slightly or stepped on. Preys mainly on available insects & arthropods. Probably ovoviviparous, but not well known & litter sizes not reported.

Venom Characteristics

Not well known, but mainly neurotoxic w/ cardiotoxic & cytotoxic factors. Stings reported to cause intense local pain, then profuse sweating, salivation & vomiting. Severe envenomations sometimes cause spreading numbness, muscle twitches, convulsions & semi-coma. Usually not lethel to humans. Human fatalities have been reported, but not well documented (in some cases, the stinging scorpion may have been misidentified).

Tityus pittieri

Identification

Family: Buthidae

Scientific Names:

Common Names:

Description

Small to medium-sized scorpion, adults usually 40-65 mm long. Body color & pattern can vary greatly, but usually medium to dark brown above (often w/ reddish tinge), legs & pedipalps lighter brown often w/ slightly darker bands or spots on some segments. Cauda light brown, 5th segment often much darker brown. Telson bulb sometimes reddish-brown, tips of pincers & sting very dark (often black). Often looks very similar to T. bahiensis (easily misidentified).

Habitat

Mainly found in moderately moist to seasonally dry sites in warm regions, often found near water sources like wells or cysterns & in agricultural areas. Not found in very dry (nor very cold) sites & seldom enters buildings. Because it often looks very much like several other species found in the same areas, it may be more widely distributed than so far reported.

Activity and Behavior

Nocturnal, terrestrial & sometimes burrows as far as 30 cm into semi-consolidated sandy soil or leaf litter layers (often under edges of rocks or logs). Ovoviviparous, but litter sizes not reported. Preys on available insects & arthropods. Seems to avoid humans, but will try to pinch & sting if molested or cornered.

Venom Characteristics

Not well known, but neurotoxic, possibly also w/ cytotoxic factors. This species has been reported to have caused serious envenomations & at least a few deaths of humans.

Tityus serrulatus

Identification

Family: Buthidae

Scientific Names: Isometrus cylindricus, Isometrus stigmurus, Tityus lamottei, T. stigmurus, T. vellardi

Common Names: Yellow scorpion, yellow house scorpion, Brazilian yellow house scorpion

Description

Medium-sized scorpion, adults usually 50-70+ mm long. Cephalothorax & all but last segment of preabdomen usually yellow to blackish-brown (sometimes dark) above; legs, pedipalps & most of cauda paler yellow (may have a greenish tinge), at least the ventral side of 5th caudal segment usually black. Digits of pedipalps & telson reddish-brown, w/ black tips. Median dorsal keel of 3rd & 4th caudal segments distinctly enlarged & look serrated in side view.

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Habitat

Found mainly in warm, moist to semi-arid or seasonally dry places w/ semi-consolidated soils or leaf litter layers. Often found near water sources & very frequently come into houses (some authorities call this a "domestic" species). Apparently primarily limited to peri-urban areas in eastern Brazil, but may also be present in (but not yet reported from) suitable habitats in nearby Paraguay or Argentina.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal & terrestrial, often burrow into loose substrate, under rocks or logs. Commonly come into houses & frequently sting humans if brushed against, stepped on, or trapped in clothes being donned. Mainly prey on available insects & arthropods. Reproduce almost exclusively via parthenogenesis (which is rare for scorpions).

Venom Characteristics

Potent neurotoxin & cardiotoxin w/ cytotoxic factors. Annually causes many serious human envenomations & fatalities (especially children). Symptoms usually include immediate intense local pain, limited local swelling, & very often systemic effects like progressively spreading numbness, nausea, headache, sweating, disorientation, rapid heart rate, difficulty breathing (pulmonary oedema), disfunction of critical organs (e.g., pancreas), & death in as little as 24-48 hrs.

Tityus spp.

Identification

Family: Buthidae

Scientific Names: [ Note: This genus currently includes more than 100 named species of which at least 8 pose significant health risks to humans within their range (see some of the most important species detailed individually, separately).]

Common Names:

Description

Small to medium-sized scorpions, adults range from 30 to >80 mm long (varies by species & sex). Body usually light to medium yellowish or brownish (sometimes darker brown, greenish, or blackish), w/ 5th (& 4th, in some spp.) postabdominal (caudal) segment very dark, tips of pincer digits & telson reddish-brown, & sting tip (aculeus) almost black. Most spp. have dorsum of mesosoma darker than legs & cauda.

Habitat

Found mainly in moderately-moist to semi-arid sites (sometimes hunting near water sources), may burrow into sandy soil or under leaves or organic debris. Some spp. found in suitable local habitats in moderately warm regions, mainly from sea level up to 500+ m elevation. Limited to Central & South America & certain of the Caribbean islands, including Cuba.

Activity and Behavior

Nocturnal, mainly terestrial (but many spp. climb rough surfaces very well), hide under debris or rocks or in natural or artificial crevices by day. Some species come into human habitations frequently. Usually prey mainly on available insects & other arthropods. Ovoviviparous, litter size varies w/ spp. & female's size. Most spp. usually avoid humans, but will sting quickly & then try to escape if disturbed, stepped on, or trapped in clothing being donned.

Venom Characteristics

Potent cardiotoxic & neurotoxic (& sometimes cytotoxic) factors. Several species cause human deaths via envenomation & are especially dangerous to small children.

Tityus trinitatus

Identification

Family: Buthidae

Scientific Names: Isometrus androcottoides, Tityus androcottoides

Common Names: Trinidad scorpion, coconut scorpion, sugarcane scorpion

Description

Medium-sized scorpion, adults usually 50-70 mm long. Dorsum of body of females usually dark-brown to black, males dark reddish-brown (sometimes w/ distinct yellowish tinge & some specimens much lighter overall); w/ legs & cauda lighter, usually medium to dark brown, pedipalps lighter brown (sometimes yellowish), w/ pincer tips black. Last 3 segments of cauda black.

Habitat

Mainly found in warm, usually humid, sites among vegetative debris. Numerous in edges of cane fields & coconut groves (especially under loose leaves, fallen stalks, & fronds & accumulated coconut husk fragments) & similar agricultural sites. So far, only reported from Trinidad & Tobago, & Venezuela. May also be present in (but not yet reported from) suitable habitats in the countries between & adjacent to these two.

Activity and Behavior

Nocturnal, mainly terrestrial, sometimes creates burrows (20-30+ cm long) into or under organic debris, climbs well & often hides behind loose fronds still on a coconut tree. Mainly preys on available insects & arthropods. Does not usually come into houses. Generally avoids humans, but will sting quickly if molested or stepped on.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly neurotoxic, w/ cardiotoxic & probably also cytotoxic factors. Envenomation (sting) usually causes significant pain & fairly short-term, mainly localized, effects immediately after a sting. Serious systemic effects & (rarely) fatalities of human children have been reported.

Tityus trivittatus

Identification

Family: Buthidae

Scientific Names: Tityus trivitattis charrenyroni, T. t. trivittatis

Common Names: Brazilian red house scorpion

Description

Medium-sized scorpion, adults usually 50-70 mm long. Body usually yellow to yellowish-red dorsally, w/ 3 sometimes obscure dark longitudinal stripes. Legs, pedipalps & cauda usually paler, yellow to yellowish-brown (rarely w/ a greenish tinge), 5th & sometimes 4th caudal segment much darker brown on ventral side. Legs & pedipalps w/ dark marks on segments. Dark leg markings & reddish body color most obvious in immature specimens.

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Habitat

Mainly found in warm regions in moderately moist sites w/ loose soil or leaf litter. Common around rough poorly-sealed buildings (like adobe or brick). Often found near a water source, & frequently come inside human's homes. Not found in very dry (nor cold) sites. Apparently limited to Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal & terrestrial, sometimes burrows under edges of rocks or logs, climbs rough surfaces well. Usually avoids humans, but will quickly sting if molested, stepped on or trapped in clothes being donned. Preys mainly on available insects & arthropods (sometimes cannibalistic). Is often considered a "peri-domestic" species within its range.

Venom Characteristics

Moderately potent neurotoxin w/ cardiotoxic & cytotoxic factors. Envenomation usually causes very intense local pain at sting site, often followed by anxiety, nausea, difficulty swallowing, rapid heart rate, & breathing difficulty. This species reportedly causes many painful stings & a few deaths of humans (mainly children) annually within its range. 

Tityus uruguayensis

Identification

Family: Buthidae

Scientific Names: Tityus tityus uruguayensis, T. trivittatis (in part)  

Common Names: Uruguayian (or house) scorpion   

Description

Small- to medium-sized scorpion, adults up to 40 mm long. General body color usually yellowish with darker patches dorsally, Prosoma:  yellowish w/ brownish patches scattered over the whole surface. Mesosoma:  yellowish above w/ brownish median line and two brownish lateral lines for most of its length.  Tail:  segments I through IV yellowish, segment V reddish, vesicle and aculeus base reddish. Aculeus tip black, legs yellowish, Pedipalps yellowish w/ brownish patches, pincers’ fingers reddish-yellow cutting edge of fixed finger w/ 12-14 rows of granules, Pectines have 12-17 teeth.   

Habitat

Mainly found under tree bark, or under debris on the ground in warm regions w/ moderately moist loose soil or leaf litter. Common around rough poorly-sealed buildings (like adobe or brick). Often found near a water source, & frequently come inside human's homes. Not found in very dry (nor cold) sites.  Reported from Argentina, Brazil & Uruguay.  

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal & terrestrial, sometimes burrows under edges of rocks or logs, climbs rough surfaces well. Usually avoids humans, but will quickly sting if molested, stepped on or trapped in clothes being donned. Preys mainly on available insects & arthropods (sometimes cannibalistic). This species is often considered to be "peri-domestic" within its range.   

Venom Characteristics

Moderately potent neurotoxin w/ cardiotoxic and possibly also cytotoxic factors. Envenomation can cause intense local pain at sting site, often followed by anxiety, nausea, difficulty swallowing, rapid heartbeat, and difficulty breathing. This species reportedly has caused painful stings & a few deaths of humans (mainly children) within its range.    

Triceratolepidophis sieversorum

Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names:

Common Names: Three-horned pitviper, Vietnamese: Ran luc gam (= "clouded snake"), ngou kaba (= "brown viper")

Description

Medium-to-large, fairly slender pitviper, adults 1.0-1.25 m long, w/ a row of 3 horn-like projections above each eye & rather blunt, slightly upturned snout. Brown to grayish-brown w/ 2 parallel rows of dark brown to black dorsal blotches, each edged along front & back w/ a thin yellowish line; often touching or joined at midline. Scales keeled. Belly lighter brownish-gray w/ darker speckling.

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Habitat

Known only from semi-evergreen forest in limestone karst in the Annam mountains along the border of Vietnam & Laos. Usually found at moderate elevations of about 100-300 m.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal & mainly terrestrial, but sometimes climbs up into bushes to >1 m above ground. Not reported, but probably oviparous w/ <15 eggs/ clutch. Probably feeds on available small mammals (maybe even bats in local karst caves) & other small animals. May vibrate tail rapidly when threatened, making a rustling noise in leaf litter.

Venom Characteristics

Not much known, but probably has mainly hemorragic action, & possibly also cytotoxic factors. No bites or envenomations of humans reported, so far. No specific antivenom currently produced against venom of this species.

Trimeresurus albolabris

Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bothrops erythrurus, Coluber gramineus, Cryptelytrops albolabris, Lachesis gramineus, L. g. albolabris, L. grammineus, Trigonocephlus viridis, Trimeresurus albolabris albolabris, T. bicolor, T. gramineus, T. g. albolabris, T. purpureomaculatus var. bicolor

Common Names: White-lipped pitviper, white-lipped tree viper, white-lipped green pit viper, Weisslippen-Bambusotter, green bamboo pitviper

Description

Medium-sized, long, thin arboreal, pitviper w/ triangular head, distinct from neck; adults usually 40-60 cm long (max. 100 cm). Body uniformly green, varies from yellowish-green to bright grass-green. May have darker crossbands. Belly greenish, yellow or white; 21 midbody dorsal scale rows. Head w/ a pair of heat-sensing pits between nostrils & eyes, & w/ a pair of hinged (folding) upper front fangs.

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Habitat

Found mainly in open tropical forests or bamboo thickets, & cultivated land, at low elevations. Often found around human habitations & in gardens. Rather widespread in southeastern Asia.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal & arboreal; rarely seen on ground except after dark. Usually slow moving, especially during the daytime, & not aggressive except when disturbed. Ovovivipaous w/ 4-25 neonates/ litter reported. Preys mainly on frogs, lizards, small birds & rodents.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly hemotoxic. Symptoms may include local pain, swelling, bruising, & tender enlargement of local lymph nodes. Systemic symptoms may include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, lethargy, gastrointestinal bleeding, & hematuria. Bites common, but few reported human deaths.

Trimeresurus erythrurus

Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Trigonocephalus erythrurus, Trimeresurus bicolor, T. carinatus

Common Names: Red-tailed green pit viper, red-tail pitviper

Description

Medium-sized, rather slender pitviper, adults usually 50-60 cm long (max. 140 cm). Body usually leaf-green dorsally; belly uniform pale green w/ yellow tinge; 23-25 midbody dorsal scale rows. Prehensile tail usually spotted w/ brown; looks "dry" compared to rest of body.

Habitat

Found in lowlands, low hills, orchards, & plantations.

Activity and Behavior

Not well known. Mainly nocturnal & mainly arboreal; but frequently comes to ground in search of food. Seldom encountered by humans. Probably ovoviviparous (litter size unknown), & probably mainly preys on available small mammals & birds (possibly occasionally on lizards or amphibians, too).

Venom Characteristics

Not well known. Primarily hemotoxic. Bites uncommon. No human fatalities recorded.

Trimeresurus flavomaculatus

Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Lachesis flavomaculatus, Megaera flavomaculatus, M. ornata, M. variegata, Parias flavomaculatus, P. ornatua, P. variegatus, Trimeresurus flavomaculatus flavomaculatus, T. f. halieus, T. f. mcgregori, T. halieus, T. mcgregori

Common Names: Philippine pitviper, Yellow-spotted pitviper, McGregor's pitviper

Description

Medium-sized, slender, adults may be >0.9 m long. Dorsal color & markings vary a lot; usually bright or olive-green, rarely yellow or white, often w/ a row of irregular brown crossbands, belly bluish-green (often yellowish along sides), w/ broken or continuous line of yellow dots along each side (usually in lowest few dorsal scale rows). Head w/ a pair of heat-sensing pits & folding upper front fangs. Rare captive-bred specimens have been mainly blue dorsally.

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Habitat

Found mainly along banks of streams or in damp localities. Limited to the Philippine Islands, based on collections, so far.

Activity and Behavior

Not very well known. Mainly terrestrial & nocturnal. Probably ovoviviparous (litter size unknown), & probably preys mainly on small mammals available in its normal habitat, & maybe also birds. Probably ovoviviparous (litter size not reported).

Venom Characteristics

Not well known, but mainly hemotoxic. Symptoms generally mild. Few bites (fewer envenomations) & no fatalities of humans recorded, so far.

Trimeresurus gramineus

Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Coluber gramineus, C. viridis, Lachesis graminaeus, L. gramineus, Trimeresurus elegans (in part), Trimeresurus gramineus, T. occidentalis, Vipera viridis

Common Names: Common bamboo viper, Indian bamboo pit viper, green bamboo pitviper, Grune Bambusotter, Gewohnliche Bambusotter

Description

Medium-sized, slender arboreal pitviper, adults usually 60-80 cm long (max. 110 cm). Body usually uniformly green (sometimes bronze-green), w/ irregular pattern of black, or bronze-green flecks. Belly pale white, yellow, or pale green. Narrow, longitudinal whitish, yellowish, or bluish lateral line along side. Head w/ a pair of latero-frontal heat-sensing pits & a pair of folding, upper front fangs. Tail usually mainly reddish-brown.

Habitat

Mainly found in bamboo thickets, vine tangles, & dense foliage adjacent to streams or other water sources; usually from near sea level to about 400 m elevation. Often comes up around human habitations & agricultural areas.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal, arboreal, & slow-moving (at least by day). Usually remains quiet when approached, but often strikes quickly if touched or otherwise threatened. Ovoviviparous (usually 7-16 young/ litter), & prey mainly on available small mammals, birds or other vertebrates.

Venom Characteristics

Primarily hemotoxic. Envenomation symptoms usually include: local pain & swelling, nausea, vomiting, & fever reported. Human deaths "rarely, if ever" occur.

Trimeresurus kanburiensis

Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names:

Common Names: Kanburi pitviper, Kanchanaburi pitviper, Kanburi Bambusotter, tiger pitviper

Description

Small, moderately heavy-bodied arboreal pitviper, adults' max. length about 70 cm. Body usually olive green above w/ brownish-green blotches forming vague dorsal crossbands, usually w/ a variable zigzag pattern. Head spotted purplish-brown on top; belly pale green w/ dark flecks. White ventrolateral stripe along body. Dorsal scales keeled. Some specimens may be almost uniformly medium-brown w/ little or no contrasting pattern, but w/ lighter brown belly.

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Habitat

Found mainly in evergreen forests & open woodland, in areas of limestone hills. Limited to western & southern Thailand, from near sea level to about 1,000 m elevation.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly arboreal, & mainly nocturnal, but also a diurnal basker, retiring to shelter during hottest hours of day. Ovoviviparous, w/ 12-16 young/ litter observed for captured specimens. Mainly prey on available small mammals & other vertebrates.

Venom Characteristics

Not very well known. Mainly hemotoxic. Few bites, fewer envenomations, & no human deaths recorded, so far.

Trimeresurus macrolepis

Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Lachesis macrolepis, Peltopelor macrolepis, Trigonocephalus macolepis

Common Names: Large-scaled pitviper

Description

Small, fairly slender arboreal pitviper, adults' max. length about 60 cm. Body usually bright green; belly pale green w/ whitish or yellowish line along most lateral scale rows. Dorsal scales relatively large for size of the rest of its body (as implied by its specific name, macrolepis).

Habitat

Found mainly in moderately open forests in hilly country, at 600-2,200 m elevation. Limited to southern India (Tamil Nadu, Kerala).

Activity and Behavior

Not very well known. Mainly arboreal & mainly nocturnal, but sometimes basks in sun. Ovoviviparous (litter size not reported, but likely about 12 young), & preys mainly on small mammals & birds (& sometimes frogs & lizards) within its habitat.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly hemotoxic. Bites usually followed, almost immediately, by intense burning pain at bite site w/ swelling extending to affected limb, persisting for 3 or 4 days. No human fatalities recorded, so far, due to envenomation by this species. No known specific antivenom currently produced.

Trimeresurus macrops

Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names:

Common Names: Kramer's pitviper, large-eyed pitviper, dark-green pit viper, Grossaugen-Bambusotter, big-eyed green pitviper

Description

Small, fairly slender arboreal pitviper, adults' max. length about 72 cm. Usually uniformly dark blue-green body w/ belly light bluish-white. Broad head, distinct from neck, w/ large, golden-yellow eyes & vertical pupils. Chin & throat bluish-white. Dorsal scales keeled. May have darker dorsal crossbands on scales & interstitial skin. Tail reddish-brown above, blue (often bright blue) below. Has latero-frontal heat-sensing pits & folding upper front fangs.

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Habitat

Most commonly found in moist, open country w/ mixed vegetation at low elevations. Frequently found around human habitations & in gardens. Limited to lowlands of Cambodia, Thailand & southern Vietnam.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly arboreal (at least rests up off ground during the day). Usually hunts on the ground during dusk & dawn hours (sometimes also at night). Not especially aggressive, but will defend itself if cornered or molested. Ovoviviparous (usually 6-12 young/ litter), & preys mainly on available small mammals & birds.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly hemotoxic. Local symptoms usually include pain & swelling. Occasional bites & envenomations of humans have been reported, but rare reports of human fatalities have not been well documented.

Trimeresurus malabaricus

Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Lachesis anamallensis, L. coorgensis, Trigonocephalus malabaricus, T. wardii, Trimeresurus anamallensis

Common Names: Malabarian pitviper, Malabar rock pitviper

Description

Medium-sized, fairly slender, adults usually 70-80 cm long (max. 1 m). Body color variable; usually greenish, olive-yellow, or brownish above, w/ darker brown or black blotches or crossbands, separate or confluent w/ yellowish spots along flanks. Belly yellow, pale line along each side of body.

Habitat

Found mainly in shrubby, rocky hills at 600-2,200 m elevation. Found mainly in open sparsely forested slopes of western India.

Activity and Behavior

Not much known. Semi-arboreal (but often rests & hunts prey on ground) & mainly nocturnal (but often active during dusk). Apparently not very aggressive, but will defend itself if cornered or molested. Seldom encountered by humans. Ovoviviparous (clutch size not specified). Mainly preys on available small mammals, birds, & other vertebrates.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly hemotoxic. Symptoms generally include pain, swelling, & local bleeding. No human fatalities recorded, so far. No known antivenom currently produced.

Trimeresurus popeorum

Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Popeia popeiorum, Trimeresurus popeiorum

Common Names: Pope’s pit viper, Pope's tree viper, Pope's bamboo pitviper, Popes Bambusotter, Pope's Lanzenotter

Description

Small to medium-sized arboreal pitviper, adults usually 60-75 cm long (max. 82 cm). Body usually uniformly medium-green above; lighter green or yellow below. Dorsal scales keeled & usually w/ 21 (rarely 23) midbody rows. May have indistinct white or yellow stripe (often w/ a narrower red or orange stripe along its ventral edge) along each side near abdomen. Head scales smooth. Tail usually reddish-brown above. Distinctive triangular head & pointed snout.

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Habitat

Most often found in low bushes or shrubs in hilly & mountainous country from 900-1,500+ m elevation. Common on tea plantations.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly arboreal (sometimes hunts on the ground) & mainly nocturnal, but sometimes active at dusk or dawn. Generally not aggressive; often permits a human intruder to approach closely without striking. When aroused, it threatens w/ open mouth &, if further disturbed, strikes vigorously & quickly. Ovoviviparous w/ usually 7-12 young/ litter. Mainly eats available small mammals, birds, or other vertebrates.

Venom Characteristics

Not well known. Mainly hemotoxic. No reliable reports of bites, envenomations, or deaths of humans from this species.

Trimeresurus puniceus

Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Atropophis puniceus, Atropis acontia, A. puniceus, Bothrops puniceus, Cophias punicea, Lachesis puniceus, Vipera punicea

Common Names: Flat-nosed pit viper, ashy pitviper, Bornean pitviper

Description

Small, stout-bodied arboreal pitviper, adults usually 40-50 cm long (max. 64 cm). Usually uniformly light reddish-brown above, w/ irregular darker blotches, usually slightly darkerer gray-brown below. Light, dark-edged streak behind each eye. Tail & belly mottled w/ brown. Flattened, slightly upturned snout, w/ an elevated ridge from each eye to snout. Scales on head smooth, on body weakly-keeled.

Habitat

Found mainly in lowland forest, from near sea level to 1,450 m elevation. Limited to southern Thailand, most of Malasia, & Indonesia (Borneo, Java, Mentawai, the Natuna Archipelago, Simular, & Sumatra).

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal. Strictly arboreal; found as high as 20 m above ground. Very sluggish in daytime, not aggressive, but will defend itself if molested. Rarely encountered by humans. Oviparous; female incubates usually 7-14 eggs/ clutch. Mainly preys on arboreal small mammals & birds (& rarely, lizards or frogs).

Venom Characteristics

Not very well known. Mainly hemotoxic. Few bites of humans (& no resultant human deaths) reported. Reported symptoms include immediate burning pain & swelling, w/ limited local discoloration (& rarely, some localized tissue necrosis at bite site).

Trimeresurus purpureomaculatus

Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Lachesis purpureomaculatus, Trigonocephalus purpureo-maculatus, Tirmeresurus puniceus (in part), T. purpureomaculatus purpureomaculatus, Trimesurus purpureus,

Common Names: Mangrove pit viper, shore pitviper, Mangrovnotter

Description

Medium-sized, fairly stout-bodied pitviper, adults usually 70-80 cm long (max. 105+ cm). Body purplish-brown, olive or grayish; often w/ white line along each side. May have series of large brownish saddle-shaped markings w/ small spots on flanks (rarely, totally unmarked), 25-27 midbody dorsal rows of strongly-keeled scales. Belly whitish (scales black-edged), light greenish, or pale brown; often w/ darker gray or light-brown speckling along sides. Head dark above w/ keeled scales.

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Habitat

Widely distributed along rocky coastal areas in mangrove & coastal swampy forests within its range. Occur very often on offshore islands, but may also be found in inland bamboo jungles up to 600 m elevation. Limited mainly to coastal areas of Southeast Asia (several countries), Singapore & Indonesia.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal, but active during day; mainly terrestrial, but commonly encountered in low bushes. Very aggressive, strikes w/ little provocation. Readily enter & swim in salt water & often move to & from near-shore islands. Mainly eat lizards & birds (juveniles eat frogs & lizards). Ovoviviparous w/ 7-14 young/ litter.

Venom Characteristics

Potent hemotoxin. Envenomation may cause severe pain, local swelling involving entire bitten limb, tender enlargement of local lymph nodes, local necrosis, & incoagulable blood. Bites common. Human deaths reported but not very common.

Trimeresurus spp. (general)

Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: This genus was recently split into 2+ new genera and includes at least 36 different spp. (even more, by some taxonomists). Only the ones known (so far), or apparently likely, to cause human health risks have been detailed (separately) here. See individual listed species for more details.

Common Names: Most are called Asian pitvipers. See individual listed spp.

Description

Most spp. are small to medium-sized, slender to fairly stout bodied mainly arboreal pitvipers, w/ adults usually 40-90 cm long. Body colors of most spp. are usually greenish or brownish, w/ contrasting blotches, lines or spots, lighter belly, & dorsally brownish tail. Most spp. usually have smooth head scales & keeled body scales.

Habitat

Most spp. are mainly found in or near forested or brushy areas, or bamboo stands, often near a stream. Some spp. live & hunt in agricultural or human living areas. Most spp. occur from near sea level up to 500+ m elevation (some much higher). This genus is limited mainly to southern & southeastern Asia.

Activity and Behavior

Most spp. are mainly nocturnal, & arboreal (or semi-arboreal), but this varies by species (see individual spp. for details). Nearly all are ovoviviparous w/ litter size varying w/ spp. (3-17+ young/ litter observed for certain spp.); but some incubate small clutches of eggs. Nearly all prey mainly on small mammals, birds, & sometimes other vertebrates.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly hemotoxic, sometimes w/ additional toxic factors. Although several spp. commonly bite people, & some are aggressive or easily aggitated; most spp. tend to avoid people, and serious envenomations & deaths of humans are relatively uncommon & usually due to only a very few species (see individual spp. for more details).

Trimeresurus sumatranus

Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bothrops formosus, B. sumatranus, Coluber sumatranus, C. sumatrensis, Lachesis sumatranus, Trigonocephalus formosus, T. sumatranus, Trimeresurus formosus, T. hageni, T. sumatranus sumatranus

Common Names: Sumatran pitviper, Sumatra-Bambusotter, Hagen's pitviper

Description

Medium-sized, fairly slender & arboreal, adults usually 70-90 cm long (max. 160 cm). Body uniformly bright-green w/ dark crossbands (often incomplete); row of pale brownish or pinkish spots on both sides of vertebral line. White line along flanks bordered below by dark line or row of spots. Tail green w/ brown (rarely pinkish) spots; belly usually greenish-gray to light-brown, sometimes w/ darker speckling along sides, especially nearer tail. Head scales often w/ black borders.

Habitat

Found mainly in lowland forested hills, & in cocoa & pepper plantations adjacent to fringes of forest, from near sea level to 1,000 m elevation.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly nocturnal but sometimes basks in sun. Mainly arboreal, but may sometimes hunt on the ground. Usually very aggressive. Will strike at slightest movement or disturbance. Ovoviviparous w/ reports of 13-17 young/ litter. Preys mainly on available amphibians, lizards & occasionally small mammals.

Venom Characteristics

Not much known. Mainly hemotoxic. Reported bites of humans have been followed by very severe local pain & swelling. Relatively few bites of humans & no human fatalities documented.

Trimeresurus trigonocephalus

Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bothrops nigro-marginatus (in part), Lachesis trigonocephalus, Magaera olivacea, M. trigonocephala, Trigonocephalus nigromarginatus, Trimeresurus capitetriangulatus, Vipera trigonocephala

Common Names: Sri Lankan green pitviper, Ceylon pitviper, Sri Lankan green tree pitviper

Description

Medium-sized, fairly slender arboreal pitviper, adults usually 70-80 cm long (max. 130 cm). Body usually pale yellowish-green, mottled & variegated w/ black markings from head to tail (often w/ rows of black-edged lighter green dorsal blotches). Black postocular stripe on each side. Belly light greenish-yellow. Tip of tail dark. Occasional specimens are dark green w/ indigo speckling dorsally.

Habitat

Found on tall trees or low shrubs & bushes in montane forests & rain forests, on reeds near streams, & often in tea plantations. Rarely seen around human dwellings.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly arboreal, but often descends to ground in search of food. Mainly diurnal, but becomes nocturnal during warmer months. Hides in dense foliage. Sluggish, but may strike quickly if disturbed or surprised. When threatened, raises & retracts front of body & strikes. May vibrate tail rapidly when disturbed. Ovoviviparous, usually fewer than 6 young/ litter. Adults prey mainly on small rodents & birds, juveniles mainly on frogs & lizards.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly hemotoxic. Reported human envenomation symptoms of local pain & swelling generally subside within a few days. Bites & envenomations of plantation workers are relatively common, but only a few human fatalities from bites by this species have been reported.

Tropidechis carinatus

Identification

Family: Elapidae

Scientific Names: Hoplocephalus carinatus

Common Names: Rough-scaled snake, Clarence River snake

Description

Medium-sized, semi-aquatic Elapid snake w/ rough, strongly-keeled scales & 5 mm long fixed front fangs. Adults usually 80-90 cm long (max. 100+ cm). Body usually medium to dark-brown often mottled w/ darker brown, & sometimes w/ darker dorsal crossbars. Head rounded w/ large eyes set well forward, w/ round pupils. Belly cream to gray.

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Habitat

Found mainly in freshwater, scrub, wet woodlands & coastal swamps & in or near watercourses, in eastern Australia (limited to northeastern New South Wales; extreme southern & southeastern Queensland).

Activity and Behavior

Semi-aquatic & semi-arboreal, mainly nocturnal, very quick, agile, & fast moving. Often shelter in arboreal ferns or tree holes 1 m above ground or higher. Not usually very aggressive, but sometimes will become aggitated at a minor disturbance. Ovoviviparous, w/ usually 5-18 young/ litter. Preys mainly on small mammals, frogs, birds & lizards.

Venom Characteristics

Mainly has very potent neurotoxic (w/ pre- & post-synaptic) factors, can cause unconsciousness of adult human within 5 min. Many bites occur when this species is mistaken for locally common, non-poisonous (& usually diurnal) common keelbacks, but only one human fatality reported (documented), so far.

Tropidolaemus wagleri

Identification

Family: Viperidae

Scientific Names: Bothrops wagleri, Cophias wagleri, Lachesis wagleri, Trigonocephalus formosus, T. sumatranus, T. wagleri, Trimeresurus hombroni, T. maculatus, T. philippensis (in part), T. subannulatus, T. sumatranus (in part), Tropidolaemus maculatus, Tropidolaemus sumatranus, T. wagleri wagleri, T. w. alboviridis, T. w. subannulatus [ NOTE: A recently named, closely-related species, Tropidolaemus huttoni, is known from only 2 specimens from a 1940s collection in Wavy Mountains, Tamil Nadu, India. ]

Common Names: Temple pitviper, Wagler’s pitviper, Wagler's palm viper, Waglers Bambusotter, Wagler's temple viper

Description

Medium-sized, stout-bodied arboreal pitviper, adults usually about 1.0 m long (max. 1.3 m). Body colors & pattens quite variable, usually green or blue-green w/ each scale black-edged (often black-tipped); w/ narrow bright yellow or greenish-yellow cross-stripes, green on flanks, often w/ green & yellow spots. Relatively large head, black on top, eyes high on sides, lighter stripes along sides. Juveniles green w/ scattered white & red-brown spots.

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Habitat

Mainly found in lowland forests & swamps, but also found at higher elevations if conditions are moist enough; often found in low shrubs & bushes, & small trees, up to 600 m elevation.

Activity and Behavior

Mainly arboreal & mainly nocturnal. Usually sluggish & docile during the day. Rarely strikes even when severely threatened or handled roughly. Preys on available birds, frogs, lizards & rodents. Ovoviviparous, w/ usually 15-41 young/ litter reported.

Venom Characteristics

Range of clinical effects not very well known. Mainly hemotoxic. Symptoms may include immediate bleeding, pain, & swelling at bite site. Because of its popularity as a pretty captive species, numerous bites of humans should be expected, but not many have been reported. No human deaths recorded, so far. No specific antivenom currently produced.